Reinforcement

On a Lineweaver-Burk plot, what does the x-intercept and y-intercept represent?

–1/Km, the inverse of substrate affinity and 1/Vmax respectively

What’s the equation for mechanical power?

P = F × v_avg

What equation describes the conservation of volume flow rate in an incompressible fluid?

A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ (continuity equation)

Bernoulli’s equation

P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant

If water is falling under gravity, which kinematics formula helps find new velocity?

v = v₀ + gt, assuming downward direction as positive.

What kind of transport requires membrane-spanning proteins and ATP?

Primary active transport.

How does hypertonic solution affect a cell?

Water exits the cell, causing it to shrink.

What structure produces erythrocytes?

Bone marrow.

Where does oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood travel in the heart?

Deoxygenated: vena cava → RA → RV → pulmonary artery. Oxygenated: pulmonary vein → LA → LV → aorta.

How many carbon atoms are in one isoprene unit used to build terpenes and steroids?

Five carbon atoms.

What does McDonaldization describe?

A process where society becomes more efficient, calculable, predictable, and controlled.

What does Protein Kinase A phosphorylate?

Serine, threonine residues on target proteins.

Where does renin come from?

Juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney.

What regulates the committed step of fatty acid synthesis?

Conversion of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Activated by insulin and citrate; inhibited by glucagon and palmitoyl-CoA.

What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

O2

Which structure prevents gastric reflux?

Lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter.

What is the function of chief cells in the stomach?

Secrete pepsinogen.

What triggers the release of gastrin?

Presence of peptides in the stomach.

Where are Paneth cells found and what do they do?

In the small intestine; secrete lysozyme and defensins.

What connects the pancreas to the digestive tract?

The pancreatic duct.

What is the function of the hepatic portal vein?

Transports nutrient-rich blood from the intestines to the liver.

What is the purpose of insulin? How does it achieve this function?

Lowers blood glucose by promoting uptake into cells. Increases GLUT4 translocation to the membrane, enhancing glucose entry.

What are the major hormones produced by pancreatic islet cells?

Insulin (β-cells), Glucagon (α-cells), Somatostatin (δ-cells), Pancreatic polypeptide (PP cells).

What is the purpose of the rooting reflex?

Causes infants to turn their head toward a stimulus. Helps infants locate the breast or bottle for feeding.

What is the Palmar grasp reflex?

Infants close hand when their palm is touched. Dissappears around 4–6 months of age.

Which sensory receptor detects pressure and vibration?

Mechanoreceptors. Mechanoreceptors can include Pacinian corpuscles (vibration) and Meissner’s corpuscles (light touch), so great integration opportunity.

Which sensory receptor detects temperature?

Thermoreceptors

Which sensory receptor detects pain?

Nociceptors.

What is motion parallax?

A monocular cue where closer objects move faster across the field of view.

Rods vs. Cones — sensitivity and function in dim light vs. bright light?

Rods = dim light, high sensitivity, no color. Cones = bright light, color, high acuity.

Which structures detect vertical and horizontal motion?

Vertical = saccule Horizontal = utricle

Where is the auditory cortex located?

Temporal lobe.

Which cells send visual signals from retina to the brain?

Ganglion cells.

Order of retinal signal transmission

Photoreceptors → Bipolar cells → Ganglion cells → Optic nerve.

What is stereopsis?

Binocular depth perception.

What does the ciliary muscle do?

Changes lens shape to focus on near or distant objects.

A body exhibits stiff muscles after death. What molecular mechanism explains this?

Absence of ATP prevents detachment of myosin heads, leading to rigor mortis.

Which ion is responsible for triggering muscle contraction?

Ca²⁺ plays a role in the excitation-contraction coupling of muscle cells. Binds to troponin, exposing actin binding sites for myosin interaction.

What is the basic functional unit of neuromuscular control?

A motor unit — one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

What is the equation for power?

Power = Work / Time.

What is the unit of pressure in SI units?

Pascal (Pa) = N/m²

Where is the partical pressure of O2 lowest in circulation?

In the venous end (venules).

What part of the brain controls breathing?

Medulla oblongata and pons.

What is the purpose of a capacitor?

Stores energy in an electric field.

In thin lens systems, what unit is used for lens power?

Diopters (D), where D = 1/f and f is in meters.

What does THz stand for?

Terahertz, or 1-^12 Hz.

How does intracellular glucose depletion promote further glucose uptake?

It maintains a concentration gradient for glucose to enter passively.

Why might excess hormones not simply reverse the symptoms of deficiency?

Excess hormones cause new pathologies, not always mirror images of the deficient state.

What type of protein assists in correct folding and prevents aggregation under stress?

Chaperone proteins (e.g., heat shock proteins).

What is the dielectric constant?

A measure of a material’s ability to increase capacitance.

What is chromatic aberration?

Failure of a lens to focus all colors to the same point.

What does adenylate cyclase do?

Converts ATP to cAMP, initiating a second messenger cascade.

What does PKA do?

Phosphorylates proteins to trigger cellular responses like gene transcription or glycogen breakdown.

How does the loop of Henle concentrate urine?

Descending limb: permeable to water, not salt

Ascending limb: actively pumps out salts, impermeable to water

→ Together, they create a countercurrent multiplier system.

What does the pancreatic duct merge with before entering the duodenum?

The bile duct

What functional group represents a peptide bond?

Amide

What does the hypothalamus regulate?

Homeostasis: temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormone release.

Where are T-cells matured?

In the thymus.

What type of immunity involves B cells and antibodies?

Humoral immunity.

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation

p² + 2pq + q² = 1

Amino acids with sulfur

Methionine and cysteine

Non-polar aliphatic amino acids

Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Proline

Polar uncharged amino acids

Serine, Threonine, Asparagine, Glutamine

Acidic amino acids

Aspartate (D), Glutamate (E)

Basic amino acids

Histidine (H), Lysine (K), Arginine (R)

What happens to cells when placed in a hypertonic solution?

Water exits the cells, causing them to shrink. The extracellular environment has higher solute concentration than the cytoplasm.

Why are boiling chips used in distillation?

They provide nucleation sites to prevent superheating and allow smooth boiling.

What’s environmental justice?

Equal access to clean air, water, and safety regardless of SES

What is prejudice vs stereotype vs discrimination?

Stereotype: belief, Prejudice: attitude, Discrimination: action

Why is scarcity a bad persuasive tactic for opinions?

People are more persuaded by widely shared views

What value of the gas constant should be used in PV=nRT when pressure is in atm?

0.0821 L·atm/mol·K — not 8.31, which is for Pascals.

Which ions have larger radii: anions or cations?

Anions — they gain electrons and expand; cations lose electrons and shrink.

How does a Lineweaver–Burk plot reflect decreased Vmax?

Increased y-intercept.

What does a leftward shift of the x-intercept on a Lineweaver–Burk plot mean?

Decreased Km.

Which amino acids can be phosphorylated due to their hydroxyl groups?

Serine, Threonine and Tyrosine

What kind of environment do facultative anaerobes grow in?

They grow throughout liquid culture because they can use oxygen when present but don’t require it.

What happens to genetic diversity if no crossing over occurs during meiosis?

No new allele combinations, so resulting cells are genetically identical (aside from independent assortment).

How do SSRIs help treat eating disorders?

By increasing serotonin signaling, which can help reduce obsessive-compulsive symptoms linked to eating disorders.

What is stereotype threat?

The fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s social group, which can worsen performance.

What is the difference between kinase and phosphorylase?

Kinase transfers a phosphate from ATP; phosphorylase adds phosphate from inorganic phosphate (Pi).

What is actor-observer bias?

When people attribute their own actions to situational causes, but others' actions to dispositional causes.

Are support networks and social isolation macro or micro-level concepts?

Micro-level.

Which sociological theory centers on institutional cohesion and social solidarity?

Functionalism (Durkheim).

What does conflict theory use to explain health treatment disparities?

Stratification — unequal access to resources.

What is a source monitoring error?

Misattributing the source of a memory — remembering content correctly but not where it came from. Familiarity plays a role.

Which type of learning involves the reward pathway?

Operant conditioning — behaviors are influenced by reinforcement or punishment.

What therapy uses negative pairings to discourage behavior?

Aversion therapy.

What type of therapy emphasizes observation and imitation?

Social cognitive therapy.

What is exchange mobility?

A process where individuals move up or down in SES but overall social class distribution remains unchanged

What is the role of the centrosome in the cell?

It is the main site for microtubule nucleation and organization.

What happens to sperm in the epididymis?

They become motile and gain the capacity for fertilization.

What’s the effect of removing SDS from SDS-PAGE?

Proteins won’t have uniform negative charges, so migration in the gel becomes based on shape and charge, not size.

Name the key Gestalt principles of perceptual organization.

Similarity – Items that look alike are grouped together. Proximity – Objects that are close together are perceived as a group. Closure – We fill in missing parts of a visual image to perceive a complete form. Continuity – We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than abrupt changes. Common Fate – Elements moving in the same direction are grouped together. Emergence – A complex pattern emerges from simpler elements that were not apparent in isolation. Multistability – We may perceive an image in multiple ways, but only one at a time (e.g., optical illusions). Subjective Contours – We perceive edges or shapes that aren’t actually present, filled in by the brain. Invariance – We recognize objects regardless of orientation, scale, or slight variations.

Which types of memory decline with age?

Episodic memory and fluid intelligence decline with age.

Which types of memory remain stable with age?

Semantic memory, procedural memory, and crystallized intelligence remain stabl