ARH100 Term 2 Flashcards

Three-Age System

a framework that divides prehistory into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages based on the primary materials used for tools and weapons. Developed by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen in the early 19th century, it helped classify artifacts at the National Museum of Denmark and provided a relative dating method. While it remains a key concept in European archaeology, it has been adapted globally, though not all regions followed the same technological progression.

Unilineal Cultural Evolution

the idea that all societies progress through a single sequence of stages, from "savagery" to "barbarism" to "civilization." Early supporters like Lewis Henry Morgan, Edward B. Tylor, and Herbert Spencer argued that cultural differences reflected different levels of advancement. It influenced early archaeology by promoting the idea of linear progress, but later scholars rejected it for being ethnocentric and ignoring cultural diversity. It is problematic because it assumes all societies develop the same way and undervalues unique historical and environmental factors

Fried’s (1967) Categories

classify human societies based on social inequality and political organization. He proposed four types: Egalitarian, Ranked, Stratified, and State societies. Egalitarian societies have minimal social hierarchy, while Ranked societies have hereditary leadership but no true class divisions. Stratified societies feature clear social classes with unequal access to resources, and State societies have centralized governments with institutionalized inequality. This system helps analyze how power and resources are distributed across different human groups

Service’s (1971) Categories

classify societies by political complexity into Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms, and States. Bands are small, egalitarian groups, Tribes have informal leadership, Chiefdoms have hereditary leaders and social ranking, and States have centralized governments and bureaucracy. Archaeologists and anthropologists use this model to study social evolution, political structures, and how power and resources were organized in past societies

Childe’s (1942) Urbanism Traits

outline key features of early cities, focusing on aspects like social organization, economy, technology, and population growth. His model emphasizes the rise of social classes, economic specialization, long-distance trade, and monumental architecture

Ames’ (2007) Causes of Social Hierarchy

identify key factors that drive social stratification, including economic surplus, control of resources, warfare, and leadership centralization. These elements encourage hierarchy by concentrating wealth and power in the hands of elites, reinforcing inequality over time. As certain individuals or groups gain control over land, food, or trade, they establish social distinctions that become institutionalized, leading to more complex social structures.

Thermodynamic Explanation of Monumentality

-       Monuments are monuments because they take lots of effort to build, and they take a large society to build, but social inequality is present. (Trigger)

All buildings take time, resources and human work to construct. Larger monuments take exponentially more effort to make

Phenomenological Explanation of Monumentality

-       Thomas argues that ways people experience a monument is what might indicate relative social hierarchies

Political Complexity

the movement of authority from the kin group to a government that is not based

on kinship.

Stonehenge

a prehistoric monument in England, located on Salisbury Plain. Built in multiple phases between 3000–1500 BCE, it consists of massive stone circles arranged with astronomical alignments. Its significance lies in its possible roles as a ceremonial, religious, or astronomical site, reflecting complex social and ritual practices. It provides insights into Neolithic engineering, burial customs, and social organization, making it one of the most studied prehistoric monuments

Pueblo Bonito

a large Ancestral Puebloan site in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, dating from 850–1150 CE. It functioned as a center for politics, commerce, and ceremonial activities, with its multi-story buildings and kivas serving as both living and ritual spaces. Evidence for social hierarchies includes elite residences, large ceremonial structures, and specialized craft production. The Chacoan Network was a vast trade and communication system linking it to other settlements. Its rise was marked by wealth and influence, but the site declined and was abandoned around the 12th century due to factors like resource depletion and social unrest

Cahokia

a Mississippian culture urban center near modern-day St. Louis, Missouri, flourishing between 1050–1350 CE. Evidence for inequality includes elite burial sites, large mounds (like Monk’s Mound), and distinctive residential areas suggesting class divisions. Feasting evidence comes from large communal spaces and food remains, indicating that elite groups hosted public feasts, reinforcing social hierarchies. The site’s scale and organization highlight a complex society with social stratification and ceremonial practices

Great Zimbabwe

flourishing between 1100–1450 CE. It is known for its impressive stone structures, including the Great Enclosure and Great Tower. Evidence for social hierarchies includes elite residences with finer materials, ritual objects, and the size and location of buildings, suggesting class distinctions. The site's extensive trade network, with evidence of gold and ivory exports, also indicates the wealth and influence of its rulers.

Marine Reservoir Effect

occurs because ocean water contains older carbon, making marine organisms appear hundreds of years older than they are in radiocarbon dating. This can lead to inaccurate dates for artifacts or remains linked to seafood-based diets. Researchers correct this by applying reservoir corrections using local calibration data or avoiding marine samples when possible

Old Wood Problem

occurs in radiocarbon dating when wood from long-lived trees or reused timber is dated, giving results older than the actual human activity being studied. This happens because the tree may have died centuries before it was used. To avoid this, researchers prioritize short-lived plant remains, charcoal from twigs, or direct dating of associated artifacts or bones.

Cowgill’s (2004) Definition

defines states as centralized political organizations with a ruling authority that maintains power through bureaucracy, laws, and military force. He emphasizes that states are dynamic and can change over time, rather than following a fixed evolutionary path (defines cities by their variables)

McMahon’s (2020) Elements of a City

defines a city based on key elements such as dense population, social complexity, economic specialization, centralized authority, and monumental architecture. These elements distinguish cities from smaller settlements by emphasizing their political, economic, and social functions in a broader regional network

North and South Mesopotamia

mainly due to geography and environment. The north had more rainfall and relied on dry farming, while the south depended on irrigation from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. This distinction impacts our understanding because it shaped different economic, social, and political developments—with the south developing early city-states like Ur and Uruk, and the north playing a key role in later empires like the Assyrians.

Traditional Narrative of Urbanism in Mesopotamia

cities first emerged in the south around 3500–3100 BCE during the Uruk period, with sites like Uruk showing early urban features such as large-scale temples, economic specialization, and bureaucracy. In the north, urban development lagged behind, with cities emerging around 2600–2300 BCE during the rise of the Akkadian Empire, as political centralization expanded into Upper Mesopotamia

Khirbat al-Fakhar

an ancient site in northern Mesopotamia, dating to around 3000 BCE. It features evidence of early urbanization, including craft specialization, architecture, and social complexity, challenging the traditional view that urbanism first developed in the south. The site suggests that northern Mesopotamia may have developed urban-like societies earlier or independently, contributing to a more complex understanding of early Mesopotamian urban development

Mesopotamia’s Climate and Environment

fertile soil from annual river floods, which supported agriculture and early settlements. Initially, the Tigris and Euphrates provided irrigation for crops, making the region ideal for farming. Over time, however, human activity and climate changes led to soil salinization and water management challenges, which reduced the fertility of the land and made sustaining large cities more difficult

McNeill’s (1976) Paradox

premodern urban environments should have struggled to grow
given a lack of sanitation or preventative medicine

Uruk Expansion

spread of Uruk culture from southern Mesopotamia around 3300–3000 BCE to regions like Syria and Anatolia. This movement was driven by trade, colonization, and military conquest, spreading urbanism, writing, and administrative practices.

Import-Substitution

Emerging elite increasingly valued
intraregional trade and begin to produce materials
from other regional centres

Cuneiform

one of the earliest writing systems, developed by the Sumerians around 3200 BCE in Mesopotamia. Initially used for recording transactions and administrative tasks, it involved pressing wedge-shaped symbols onto clay tablets. Over time, it evolved to represent phonetic sounds and was used for literature, legal documents, and religious texts. The script spread across Mesopotamia and other regions, adapting to various languages, including Akkadian and Elamite, before gradually fading out around the 1st century CE

Mesopotamia Chronology

-       The first urban sites appeared in the subsequent Uruk period, between 4000 b.c. and 3200 b.c.

-       The site of Uruk in southern Iraq is the oldest known city in the world.

two massive temple precincts located in the center of the city

Mesopotamia Government

Mesopotamian society revolved around three sources of authority: the temple, the palace, and the city council

The Code of Hammurabi, which dates to the period around 1800 b.c., is the most extensive of a series of early Mesopotamian legal documents

Mesopotamia Inequality

Mesopotamian society included kings, priests, craft specialists, merchants, labor­ers, and slaves

-       Attendants were killed, preserved, and only then buried with the ruler.

-       the rich burial goods and the sacrificial victims found in the Royal Tombs were meant to accompany the deceased to the afterlife; per­haps the goods were used to provide offerings to the gods

Mesopotamia Warfare

-       Cities were walled, and the texts often speak of wars between them.

-       The main tools of war were axes, spears, arrows, and carts drawn by asses or oxen.

Mesopotamia Sanitation

-       Drains and private lavatories do appear from around the start of the 4th millennium but become much more common in the 3^rd millennium

-       Rubbish and other organic refuse appears to
generally be piled near the limits of urban
settlement

Craft Specialization in Mesopotamia

the division of labor where individuals focused on specific trades such as pottery, metalworking, weaving, and seal carving rather than general subsistence activities. This specialization contributed to economic growth, urban development, and social stratification, as skilled artisans played a crucial role in producing goods for both local use and long-distance trade. Archaeological evidence, including workshops, tools, and standardized production techniques in cities like Ur and Uruk, highlights the significance of specialized labor. Additionally, the development of writing, particularly cuneiform, was closely tied to craft specialization, as administrative records were needed to track production and trade

Mesopotamian Long Distance Trading Study

Isotopic analysis in order to trace the origins of ceramic materials

Key Findings

-       Ceramics made from distant regions, meaning that there is a long-distance network

-       Examples include vessels with temper or clay matching geological sources in Anatolia, the Iranian Plateau, and the Persian Gulf.

-       These trade routes facilitated the exchange of other high-value goods, such as metals, textiles, and semi-precious stones

-       Ceramics served as transport containers

-       Ceramic production was under elite control

-       Decorations meant that ceramics also served as symbolic functions

-       High-quality imported ceramics were often associated with elite contexts, while locally produced ceramics were more common in lower-status households. (managing surplus production)

Egypt’s Setting

Egypt is divided into Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. To the north of Cairo, the Nile Valley spreads into several branches, forming the Delta region as it flows toward the Mediterranean Sea

Because the area was protected by deserts to the east and west and cataracts to the south, the threat of foreign invasion was minor

-       The Nile served as a means of transportation, allowing for the easy movement of people and goods north and south along the river.

-       The Nile flooding served as a replenishment

-       The Nile Valley, like Mesopotamia, is com­pletely lacking in mineral resources

-       BUT deserts have metals

Egypt’s Chronology

by the late Predynastic period three kingdoms had formed along the Nile Valley.

-       The earliest evidence for the unification of Egypt under a single ruler is a slab of carved slate known as the Narmer Palette

Egyptian Government

The power of the king was tightly linked to the critical Egyptian con­cept of ma’at, which combines the virtues of balance and justice

Egyptian Writing

Egyptian tombs were often painted with detailed depictions of daily life meant to magically provide for the deceased in the afterlife.

Egyptian Monuments

The pyramids of Old Kingdom Egypt are among the most impressive monu­ments ever built

The earliest structure identified as a royal tomb is Tomb 100 from the site of Hierakonpolis

Egyptian Cities

The Egyptian king ruled over the entire Nile Valley. Egypt was a territorial state rather than a city-state

-       The monumental core of the early Egyptian state was not embedded in an urban center.

Pyramids in Egypt

served primarily as royal tombs for pharaohs, ensuring their journey to the afterlife while symbolizing their divine connection to the gods, particularly Ra, the sun god. These monumental structures also reinforced the pharaoh’s power and authority by demonstrating control over vast resources and labour. Beyond their religious and political roles, pyramids had significant economic and social impacts, employing workers, artisans, and scribes. Additionally, their construction showcased Egypt’s advanced engineering, mathematics, and organizational skills, making them some of the most remarkable achievements of the Old Kingdom

Egyptian Sites

• Giza – Home to the Great Pyramids and the Sphinx, showcasing Old Kingdom monumental architecture.

• Saqqara – Site of Djoser’s Step Pyramid, the earliest large-scale stone structure.

• Abydos – Major religious center and burial site of early pharaohs.

• Karnak & Luxor – Important temple complexes in Thebes, dedicated to Amun and other gods.

• Valley of the Kings – New Kingdom burial site, including Tutankhamun’s tomb.

• Amarna – City built by Akhenaten, reflecting a brief religious shift to Aten worship.

The Aegean

The homeland of the Minoan culture was the island of Crete, while Mycenaean societies developed on the Peloponnese Peninsula in southern Greece and to the north in central Greece

Minoans and Mycenaeans

The Minoans (c. 3000–1450 BCE) were based on Crete and known for their palace-centered society, elaborate frescoes, and maritime trade, with little evidence of warfare. Their writing system, Linear A, remains undeciphered. In contrast, the Mycenaeans (c. 1600–1100 BCE) were a militaristic society on mainland Greece, known for their fortified citadels, warrior culture, and use of Linear B script, an early form of Greek. While the Minoans influenced Mycenaean art and architecture, the Mycenaeans eventually conquered Crete, absorbing and adapting Minoan elements into their own civilization.

Aegean Writing Systems

Linear A and Linear B. Linear A (c. 1800–1450 BCE) was used by the Minoans on Crete, but it remains undeciphered, suggesting it recorded a non-Greek language. Linear B (c. 1450–1200 BCE) was adapted by the Mycenaeans and is an early form of Greek, primarily used for administrative and economic records. The transition from Linear A to Linear B reflects Mycenaean dominance over Minoan Crete. Additionally, the Cretan Hieroglyphic script existed alongside Linear A but remains poorly understood. These writing systems provide insight into Aegean bureaucracy, trade, and cultural interactions.

The Aegean Warfare

fortifications like those at Mycenae, which feature massive walls and gates designed for defense. The Palace of Knossos on Crete shows signs of destruction, possibly from military conflict. Weapons such as swords, spears, and arrows have been found at various sites, indicating their use in combat. Additionally, depictions of battles and fortified settlements in Aegean art, such as frescoes from the Mycenaean period, also suggest the presence of warfare.

Genetics and Trade Tracking

Genetic analysis of human remains, animals, and plants can reveal migration patterns, showing how people moved along trade routes and interacted with distant regions. Archaeological sites, including trade goods, artifacts, and foreign materials, provide direct evidence of the exchange of goods and culture. For example, DNA analysis of domesticated plants and animals can trace their origins and spread along trade networks. This combination helps researchers understand the movement of people, ideas, and commodities, enhancing our knowledge of ancient global connections and trade dynamics

Formation of Indus

Sedentary villages in the Indus region began forming around 7000 BCE, with early farming communities such as Mehrgarh. These villages gradually developed more complex social and economic structures over thousands of years. Large-scale urbanism, however, did not emerge until around 2600 BCE with the rise of major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

Harappa

one of the major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, flourishing around 2600–1900 BCE. It was a well-planned urban center with a grid-like street layout, advanced drainage systems, and standardized brick architecture. It played a key role in trade, craft production, and administration, with evidence of long-distance trade connections to Mesopotamia. The city’s organization suggests a complex social structure, though there is little evidence of centralized rulers. Its decline around 1900 BCE is linked to environmental changes, shifting river patterns, and possible economic disruptions

Mohenjo-Daro

(c. 2600–1900 BCE), was a highly advanced urban center known for its well-planned streets, sophisticated drainage system, and standardized baked brick buildings. It featured a Great Bath, possibly used for ritual or communal activities, and large structures that may have served administrative or social functions. Unlike Mesopotamian or Egyptian cities, there is little evidence of palaces or temples, suggesting a different form of governance. Its decline is linked to environmental changes, resource depletion, and shifting trade networks.

Southwest Asian Agro-pastoralism System

a mixed farming and herding strategy that combined crop cultivation with animal husbandry. It involved growing staple crops like wheat, barley, lentils, and chickpeas while raising domesticated animals such as sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs. This system allowed early societies to sustain themselves through both agriculture and livestock, providing a stable food supply, materials like wool and leather, and draft animals for labor

Diffusionism

the idea that cultural traits, technologies, and ideas spread from a few key centers of innovation to other societies rather than developing independently. Early theories often assumed that major advancements, like agriculture or writing, originated in a single place and were then adopted by others. More recent analyses, however, emphasize independent innovation, adaptation, and complex interactions between societies, recognizing that cultures can develop similar ideas on their own while also influencing each other through trade and contact

Rivers in Indus

The Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra (Sarasvati) Rivers provided fertile land for farming through seasonal flooding, enabling large-scale food production. These rivers also facilitated transportation and trade, allowing goods and raw materials to move between cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. However, shifts in river courses and climate changes may have contributed to the civilization’s decline by disrupting water sources and agricultural stability

Indus Sanitation

They built sophisticated drainage systems with covered sewers, public wells, and private bathrooms connected to underground drains. Houses had bathing areas with water channeled into drainage systems, preventing waterlogging. Large reservoirs and granaries suggest water storage for agriculture and daily use

Isotopic Analysis

to study past mobility patterns by examining the isotopes in human bones, teeth, and other materials like pottery. Common isotopes include strontium (Sr), oxygen (O), and carbon (C). These isotopes reflect the local environment where a person lived, as they are absorbed from food, water, and the surrounding geology. For example, strontium isotopes can reveal whether a person lived in a region with different geological sources. This method complements other evidence, like archaeological artifacts, pottery styles, and ancient texts, by providing direct chemical signatures of a person's geographic origins and mobility.

Valentine et al. (2015) Study

focused on understanding past human mobility patterns by analyzing strontium and oxygen isotopes in human skeletal remains. Their samples came from ancient individuals in the Indus Valley and the Mesopotamian region, revealing evidence of long-distance travel and migration. The study showed that some individuals in these regions were not local, supporting the idea of interregional movement. However, the study had limitations, including the availability of isotopic data and potential issues with sampling bias or local isotopic variation, which may not account for the full complexity of mobility patterns.

Indus Social Hierarchy

While there are some indications of differentiated access to goods, such as elite burials and larger houses, there is no clear evidence of overt social stratification like in Mesopotamia or Egypt. Artifacts and urban planning suggest equality in public life, with similar-sized homes and uniformity in material culture across most settlements. The lack of royal tombs or monumental inscriptions further complicates our understanding of social organization in the Indus Valley

Harappan Burials

-       Analyzed burials did not suggest the individuals were poor

-       Cemeteries at the site are relatively large compared to other Indus sites but much smaller than what we see in other contemporary regions

-       Most inhumations were single individuals that generally had pottery and a small number of grave goods (no major wealth differences between individuals)

-       Most were in good health

Sampling Bias in Archaeology

the distortion of archaeological findings caused by the selective nature of excavation or research. This can occur when certain sites, regions, or time periods are overrepresented or underrepresented due to factors like accessibility, researcher focus, or preservation conditions. For example, more excavations may occur in well-preserved areas or popular sites, while remote or less accessible sites might be neglected, leading to skewed interpretations of past societies. To minimize sampling bias, archaeologists aim for systematic sampling and ensure a representative selection of sites for a broader, more accurate understanding of past cultures

Indus Setting and Chronology

descends from the Himalaya Mountains and winds through 3,000 kilometers of modern Pakistan before flowing into the Arabian Sea

-       Among the most powerful rivers in the world

-       Most Harappan/Indus civilization sites are found along large rivers or waterways

-       Saraswati river was important as well despite now being a dried paleochannel

-       Rivers are important for trade/transport but also integral for agricultural systems

-       Floods were predictable

Harappan City Features

-       Houses and other structures are laid along a regular grid of streets that run through the city

-       Sense of order

-       Emphasis on hygiene (elaborate draining system)

Harappan Script

known mostly from small carved stone sealings used to mark vessels and bundles

Given the large number of symbols, it appears likely that the writing system was either logographic (signs representing words) or ideographic (signs representing concepts)

Harappan Government

lived in highly organized cities with a bureaucracy that used a writing system, seals, and weights

The identity of the elite, the basis of their claim to power, and their relation to other sectors of society remain largely unknown.

-       Lack of clear evidence of extensive organized militaries

-       Most defensive structures at urban sites appear to be less functional compared to other areas/periods

-       Controlling access > defensive activities

-       Relatively standardized house forms and grid-based urban plans suggest some amount of centralized planning

The Three Dynasties of China

Xia, Shang, and Zhou—emerged in northern China during the period between 2000 b.c. and 500 b.c.

The Yi-Luo Valley in the central plains of northern China has been identified as the political center of the Xia and Early Shang Dynasties

Erlitou, a very large site in the Yi-Luo Valley, might have been the capital of the Xia Dynasty.

Authority

Although military strength was critical to the power of the Shang rulers, their legitimacy rested on the unique role they fulfilled by performing rituals

-       Connect the human world with the divine

-       Sacrifice appears distinct from feasting, since in many cases complete animals are interred

Conflict

Warfare during the Zhou Dynasty drew on new tools, including iron weapons and horses

Japan’s Key-hole Shaped Tombs

large burial mounds constructed during the Kofun period (ca. 250-538 CE). These tombs are named for their distinctive "cloverleaf" shape, with a square front and a circular rear section, resembling a cloverleaf when viewed from above. They were typically built for the elite and powerful individuals, often ruling elites or aristocrats, and served as monumental markers of their status and power. The tombs are usually surrounded by a moat, and inside, they contain grave goods such as weapons, pottery, and jewelry

The Tarim Basin

located in modern-day Xinjiang, China, is known for its unique burial traditions that date back to the Bronze Age (ca. 2000 BCE). The region's burials include well-preserved mummies, many of which feature Caucasoid physical traits, suggesting cultural influences from Eurasian Steppe peoples. These mummies were typically buried in coffin-like tombs, often placed in kurgan-style burial mounds. Textiles, wooden objects, and pottery are frequently found as grave goods, reflecting a blend of local and foreign cultural influences. Notable burial practices include highly elaborate grave goods, indicating a complex social structure, and the preservation of bodies through dry desert conditions, which allowed for exceptional organic preservation

Angkor

located on the southern Mekong Plain in Cambodia between the Tonle Sap Lake and the Kulen Hills

-       The power was based on intensive rice agriculture, taxation, military force, and the ritual position of the rulers

-       “the out­standing example of building in the name of majesty and sacred power”

Southern Silk Route: A maritime trade route linking the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, and East Asia.

Underwater Archaeology

the study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of submerged sites such as shipwrecks, harbors, cities, and other waterlogged areas. It combines traditional archaeological methods with specialized techniques for working in underwater environments, like scuba diving, remote-operated vehicles (ROVs), and sonar mapping.

Space Syntax Analysis

a method used in archaeology and architecture to study the spatial organization of buildings, settlements, or urban areas. It focuses on how the arrangement of spaces and their connections influence social behavior, movement, and interactions within a space. By analyzing the layout of pathways, rooms, and buildings, this method helps understand the relationship between the built environment and human activities.

Mesoamerica

cultural region in Central America that includes parts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. Archaeologists focus on several major civilizations that thrived in this area, each contributing to its rich history. The Olmec (c. 1500–400 BCE) are considered the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica, known for their colossal stone heads. The Maya (c. 250–900 CE) developed advanced writing, astronomy, and city-states like Tikal. Teotihuacan (c. 100–650 CE) was a massive city featuring the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, while the Zapotec (c. 500 BCE–900 CE) built Monte Albán and contributed to early writing and calendar systems. The Aztec (Mexica) (c. 1300–1521 CE) established a vast empire centered in Tenochtitlán, known for its military dominance and tribute systems. Mesoamerican civilizations were highly advanced, developing writing, calendars, and monumental architecture despite lacking large domesticated animals or metal tools

Teotihuacan

-       Located in a valley, near the only irrigable waters in the region

-       Early urban-like development occurs around 100 BC

-       Several large, monumental structures seemingly along a planned grid system

-       Lots of evidence of craft specialization (obsidian production, farming, animal husbandry, etc.)

-       Collapse of city tends to be dated around AD 600. Many buildings destroyed or burned

-       A very short-lived site

-       A major city-state that interacted with other regional polities

-       Significant amount of trade and interaction

-       An intensive wetland raised field system was established primarily for maize production

-       Maize was processed by grinding it into flour for bread and tortillas

-       Domestication or management of smaller animal species (ex. turkey, turtles, bees and rabbits)

Evidence of Animal Domestication at Teotihuacan

particularly with dogs, rabbits, and turkeys, which may have been raised for food, ritual use, or trade. Stable isotope analysis was used to examine the diets of these animals by analyzing carbon and nitrogen isotopes in their bones. This revealed that some animals consumed foods linked to human agriculture, suggesting controlled feeding rather than wild foraging. However, counterarguments suggest that these animals could have scavenged human food waste rather than being fully domesticated.

This type of isotopic analysis differs from previous discussions on human mobility, where oxygen and strontium isotopes were used to track migration and regional origins. Instead, carbon and nitrogen isotopes help reconstruct diet, providing insights into human-animal interactions and resource management

Specialization in Teotihuacan

Specific areas, such as the Ciudadela and the Oaxaca Barrio, show concentrations of specialized goods like obsidian tools, ceramics, and worked animal bones, indicating designated workshops and skilled artisans. Faunal remains reveal patterns of animal use, with certain species more commonly found in elite or ritual contexts, suggesting controlled distribution and specialized roles in food production, trade, or religious activities

Remote Sensing

is a non-invasive archaeological method used to detect and analyze features beneath the surface without excavation. It includes techniques like satellite imagery, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to identify buried structures, landscape modifications, and past human activities. In archaeology, this method helps map ancient cities, track environmental changes, and locate hidden sites, making it a valuable tool for large-scale and preservation-friendly investigations.

Crop marks and Remote Sensing

-       Aerial and satellite photography typically look for positive features (e.g. walls) and negative features (ditches)

-       Human activity can cause differences in how overlying vegetation grows

-       Requires excavation or geophysical survey to “ground truth” results and to confirm phasing of different features

Ground-Based Geophysical Survey Techniques

• Magnetometry: Measures magnetic anomalies in the soil to identify features like hearths, walls, and ditches. Strength: Fast and effective for large areas. Weakness: Less useful in areas with modern metal interference.

• Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR): Uses radio waves to detect subsurface structures by measuring signal reflections. Strength: Provides depth information. Weakness: Struggles in clay-heavy or waterlogged soils.

• Resistivity Survey: Measures how well soil conducts electricity to identify buried features like foundations or ditches. Strength: Good for detecting stone structures. Weakness: Slow and affected by soil moisture.

Perez-Perez et al. Study

applied geophysical survey methods, including magnetometry and ground-penetrating radar (GPR), to investigate buried structures at Teotihuacan. Their research uncovered previously unknown architectural features, including potential residential areas and pathways, as well as evidence of subsurface modifications. The findings helped refine interpretations of urban planning and social organization at Teotihuacan, demonstrating how non-invasive techniques can reveal hidden aspects of ancient cities without excavation

Identity and Inequality at Teotihuacan

-       Teotihuacan can be separated into four different quadrants

-       Separate quadrants into compounds with apartment complexes that house individual families

• Teotihuacan commoner houses are larger and are less different
  compared to elite houses than later Aztec-period cities

-       Teotihuacan has lower economic inequality compared to later Aztec-period cities

Pots or People

refers to the debate over whether the presence of foreign-style ceramics in an archaeological site indicates the movement of people (migration) or simply the exchange of goods through trade. At Teotihuacan, ceramic distribution provides insights into identity, interaction, and social organization. For example, distinct pottery styles and production techniques help archaeologists determine whether certain groups, such as the Oaxaca barrio residents, maintained cultural ties to their homeland or integrated into Teotihuacan society.

House Size and Location Inequality Analysis

more elaborately constructed homes in prime locations (e.g., near central plazas or elite areas) often indicate higher social status, while smaller, less elaborate dwellings in peripheral areas suggest lower social standing

Origins of Urbanism in Mesoamerica

The earliest evidence of emerging political complexity is found on Olmec sites along the Gulf Coast of Mexico

-       constructed a series of major cer­emonial centers in towns with populations numbering in the thousands

-       The first city was located at the site of Monte Albán, in the Oaxaca Valley in the Mex­ican highlands

Teotihuacan Location

grew into an enor­mous city covering an area of 20 square kilometers, with a population of more than 80,000

-       It was laid out along a road, known as the Avenue of the Dead, that stretches for 5 kilometers and enters the city from the south.

-       The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest monument in the city, rising to 64 meters and encompassing over 9 million cubic meters.

-       The Ciudadela is a very large compound that some archaeologists think might have housed a palace. At the back of the main courtyard in the compound is the Temple of the Feathered Serpent

-       The scale of the city, along with its extensive urban planning and monu­mental construction, indicates a strongly centralized state

-       the destruction of the Temple of the Feathered Serpent and the shift to building apartment complexes speaks clearly of a strong reaction against centralizing power in favor of a corporate political structure

Mayan Setting and Chronology

Most of the early cities developed along rivers and swamps in the southern zone. The northern zone became the dominant focus of settlement in later periods

-       The main agricultural method used in the region is slash-and-burn cultivation, in which the forest is cleared by burning

-       After a number of growing seasons, the field is abandoned, and the forest is allowed to regenerate

Mayan Cities

The central area of Copán, Honduras, has been the focus of inten­sive research. The center of Copán includes two large pyramids and an elaborate ball court

The pyramids were built up over centuries as new rulers tore down and built over the temples of their predecessors

Mayan Government

cities were ruled by dynasties of powerful kings

On the basis of the evidence from Tikal and Copán, it appears that the founding of the cities was linked in some cases with the arrival of a ruler connected to Teotihuacán

Although the rulers of cities were able to draw on the prestige of their dynastic lineage and the sacred aspect of their office, their power was not absolute or unchallenged

-       There is evidence that, particularly during the later part of the Classic period, a broader aristocracy came to challenge the power of the ruler

Mayan Warfare

Bloodletting and sacrifice were important elements of the ritual

However, violence in the civilization went beyond ritual and sport. From sites such as Aguateca, there is clear evidence that cities were conquered and burnt

Mayan Inequality

The burials of royalty do not contain large quantities of elaborate goods

It is possible that much greater wealth, including textiles and feathers that have not survived, were orig­inally buried with Yax K’uk Mo’

One aspect of wealth that is largely invisible archaeologically is richly woven cloth and other elaborate items of clothing. The contemporary civilians are renowned for their colorful clothing, which features many design elements that can be found on Classic sculptures and paintings

Mayan Hieroglyphics

developed from picto­graphic signs representing concepts to a system that uses these same signs to rep­resent syllables

-       never discarded the pictographic mean­ing of signs

one sign could represent both a syllable and concept

Aztec Setting and Chronology

Tenochtitlán was built on an island in Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico and was connected to the mainland by a series of causeways

-       At the center of the city rose the great twin pyramids of the Templo Mayor, the spiritual center of the universe of this civilization.

They were aware of both the Olmec and Teotihuacán and drew explicit connections to those societies.

Kings traced their genealogy back to the rulers of the Toltec Empire, which developed between a.d. 950 and a.d. 1150 after the fall of Teotihuacán

Aztec Economy and Ritual

Tenochtitlán relied heavily on the expansion of raised agricultural fields, known as chinampas, within the swamps of the lakes of the Basin of Mexico

Other caches in the Templo Mayor provide evidence of the important role human sacrifice played in ritual. Worked human skulls, known as “skull masks,” have been found in a number of the caches

-       Human sacrifice played a critical role in ritual, and the sacrifice of war captives or slaves was an important part of the ritual cycle

Human Osteoarchaeology

The study of human skeletal remains to understand past populations, including their health, diet, lifestyle, trauma, disease, and migration patterns. Archaeologists analyze bones and teeth to reconstruct age, sex, ancestry, and activity patterns, often using methods like stable isotope analysis and paleopathology to gain insights into ancient lives

Nasca Culture

Developed in the narrow Nasca and Ica Valleys of the southern coast of Peru. This culture is best known for Nasca Lines, the large patterns they created on the desert floor.

-       People lived initially as hunter-gatherers but eventually in semi-sedentary agricultural villages

-       Villages begin to congregate around low river valleys with flooding rivers that facilitated agriculture around the 3^rd millenium BC

-       Cotton is first cultivated around 2500 BC

-       Ceremonial structures were first built around 3000 BC

-       Interconnected regional centres

-       Lack of discrete separation between graves suggests an unranked society but the uncommon presence of gold suggests some amount of hierarchy

Political Organization of Nasca

a decentralized society with a chiefdom-based political structure rather than a highly centralized state. Evidence for this comes from their settlements, which lack large administrative centers or elite palaces, suggesting power was distributed among local leaders rather than a single ruler. The Cahuachi site, a major ceremonial and pilgrimage center, indicates religious authority played a key role in governance. Additionally, the Nasca Lines—massive geoglyphs—suggest coordinated labor efforts, possibly organized by religious or political leaders

Nasca Burials

Elite burials, often found with elaborate textiles, ceramics, and metal ornaments, suggest a hierarchical society with distinct social classes. The presence of trophy heads in some graves indicates ritualized violence, possibly linked to warfare or religious practices. At Cahuachi, a major ceremonial center, burials of high-status individuals reinforce the idea that the site was both a religious and political hub. The investment in large-scale monuments, such as the Nasca Lines and Cahuachi's adobe mounds, implies organized labor and leadership, further supporting the existence of a stratified society where elites coordinated large-scale construction and ritual activities.

Nasca Geoglyphs

-       Not unique

-       Most famous from Andes

-       Usually, straight lines dug into a dark-patina stone

-       Geometric in design or figurative

Archaeology Rock Art Terms

Pictographs: painting on stone

Petroglyph: carved image created by removing stone material from parent

Geoglyph: large images outlined on the ground

Sakai et al. (2024) Study

employed satellite and drone imagery, augmented by artificial intelligence (AI), to identify 303 previously unknown Nasca geoglyphs in Peru's Nazca Desert. This approach significantly accelerated the discovery process, nearly doubling the number of known geoglyphs within six months—a task that had previously taken nearly a century to identify 430 figures. The newly discovered geoglyphs depict various figures, including animals like parrots, cats, monkeys, and a "killer whale holding a knife," as well as humanoid forms and decapitated heads. These findings offer fresh insights into the Nasca culture, suggesting that the geoglyphs may have served as markers for pilgrimage routes or held ritual significance. The integration of AI with remote sensing technologies exemplifies a transformative advancement in archaeological methodology, enabling more efficient and comprehensive surveys of extensive and challenging terrains

Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating

-       Looks at quartz

-       When a quartz grain is surrounded by other soil types, it will slowly trap electrons in its mineral structure from the radiation of the other materials surrounding it

-       Once buried, the OSL clock starts ticking and the electrons slowly accumulate, trapped inside the mineral source

Determining the Age of Geoglyphs

-       Looking at associated sites

-       Interpret images/designs

Inca Empire

At the peak of the empire, it ruled more than 12 million people in a region that stretched across 3,000 kilometers from Ecuador to northern Chile.

-       Emerging from a cave

Believed that the god Wiraqocha created their ancestors, who then journeyed until they reached Cuzco, where they founded their capital.

-       Area became increasingly dense around AD 1000 with formal state-level control being present by at least AD 1200

-       Military-like expansion and alliance building continued until AD 1400

-       One of the most intriguing aspects of society was the power exerted by deceased rulers

-       After death, the emperor was mummified as part of an elaborate collective ritual

-       The property amassed by the emperor during his life passed to his kin group descen­dants, known as panaqa

-       The panaqa controlled considerable resources, including the royal estates of the former rulers

-       Engaged in constant military campaigns to maintain and expand their empire

-       Were able to field very large military forces consisting of tens of thousands of troops

-       Built a network linking together approximately 40,000 kilo­meters of roads

-       Imperial control negotiated via ceremonial or religious practices

Chavin de Huantar Location

-       Mountain range that run along the western margin of South America

-       Western slopes are largely desert plains while eastern slopes are tropical rainforests

Located in a narrow valley in the highlands of Peru, at the confluence of the Huachesca and Mosna Rivers

-       The rivers that flow past the site cannot be navigated, so visitors would have arrived on foot, descending from the mountains on paths along one of the rivers

-       Walking directly from the staircase leading up from the circular courtyard, the visitor reaches the intersection of two galleries. In the center of the intersection stands a 4-meter-high granite shaft known as the Lanzón, carved in the form of a fanged human deity

Chavin de Huantar Function

The actual function of the temple remains unclear

-       It was an oracular site where people would come for prophecies or cures at the hands of the priests

-       Surprisingly, there is only limited evidence of feast­ing

-       Rather than creating a setting for bringing together large numbers of people, the design of it is structured to affect the perceptions of individuals

-       The occupation site in itself is unremarkable. The site was neither an urban center nor the core of a state

-       A number of the animals represented in the art, including snakes, jaguars, crested eagles, and caymans, are native to the Amazon tropical lowlands and are not found in the highlands