Anatomy Test 1

Anatomy

study of the structure of body parts

Physiology

study of the function of body parts

Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy

study of large, visible structures

Regional Anatomy

looks at structures in a specific region

Systemic Anatomy

Looks at a body system

Microscopic anatomy

structures too small to see with eyes

Cytology

Type of Microscopic, study of cells

Histology

Type of microscopic, study of tissues

Developmental anatomy

studies anatomical and physiological development

Embryology

Type of developmental anatomy, before birth

Physiology is usually talked about…

Systemically

Order of Body Organization

Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism

Integumentary System

encloses internal body structures, the site of many sensory receptors ex. hair, skin, nails

Skeletal System

supports body, enables movement with muscular system

Lymphatic System

Returns fluid to body and defends against pathogens

Muscular System

enables movement with skeletal system and helps maintain body temp

Nervous System

detects and processes sensory info and activates bodily responses

Digestive System

processes food used by the body and removes waste

Endocrine System

secretes hormones and regulates processes

Cardiovascular System

delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and equalizes temperature

Respiratory System

Removes CO2 from body and delivers oxygen to blood

Male Reproductive System

Produces s*x hormones and gametes, delivers gametes to female

Female Reproductive System

Produces s*x hormones and gametes, supports fetus, and produces milk

Urinary System

Controls water balance, removes waste from blood and excretes them

8 Requirements for Life

Maintaining boundaries, movement, reproductive, growth, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, and excretion

Maintaining Boundaries

ability to keep internal and external environments separate, selectively permeable membrane, skin keeps body enclosed

Movement

Motion of body or cell, flow of blood cells, stretching or bending

Responsiveness

ability to sense and adjust to changes, nervous system functionality

Digestion

breaking down of ingested food to simple molecules

Metabolism

all chemical reactions in the body, catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (synthesis)

Excretion

process of removing wastes from the body

Reproduction

cells must be replaced, offspring should be produced

Growth

an increase in size of body part/organism, by increasing number of cells

Homeostasis

ability to maintain stable internal and external conditions, blood pH, body temp, blood pressure

3 components of homeostatic controls

Receptor, Control Center, and Effector

Receptor

Monitors environment and responds to stimuli ex. thermoreceptors respond to an increase in body temperature

Control Center

Receives input from receptor and determines set point to maintain the variable at (ex. 98.6 F for temp)

Effector

Provides the means for control center to respond ex sweating if hot

Negative Feedback

Most used, Response reduces initial stimulus ex. sweating when hot triggers a decrease in body temperature

Positive Feedback Loop

Response increase stimulus, amplifying the effects ex. oxytocin enhancing contractions when fetus head pushes

Standard Anatomical Position

Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs pointed away from body

What does left/right refer to?

The Body’s Left and Right, opposite of the observer’s point of view

Anterior/Ventral

front or towards the front of the body

Posterior/Dorsal

back or towards the back of the body

Superior/Cranial

Position above or higher than another part (cranial is more so towards head when talking about trunk of the body)

Inferior/Caudal

Position below or lower than another body part (caudal means near the coccyx or lower spinal cord)

Lateral

away from midline of body

Medial

In/towards midline of the body

Proximal

Position in a limb nearer to the point of attachment

Distal

position in a limb farther from the point of attachment

Superficial

Position closer to the surface of the body (skin)

Deep

Position farther from surface of the body

Sagittal Plane

vertical line that divides the body into left and right sides

Frontal/Coronal Plane

Vertical line that divided the body into anterior and posterior sides

Transverse Plane

Horizontal line that divides the body into upper and lower halves

2 MAIN Cavities

Dorsal and Ventral

Ventral Cavity is broken into ….

Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavities separated by the diaphragm

Thoracic Cavity

Contains 2 Pleural Cavities (lungs) and mediastinum (esophagus and trachea plus pericardial cavity)

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Contains the abdominal cavity (digestive organs) and pelvic cavity (reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum)

Serous membrane/serosa

Thin membranes that cover the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities with serous fluid between

Visceral Membrane

Covers the actual organ

Parietal Membrane

Lines the walls of the body cavity, further from the organs

Visceral/Parietal Peritoneum

Membranes surrounding the abdominopelvic cavity and organs within them

Visceral/Parietal Pleura

Membranes surrounding the lungs and lung/mediastinum cavity

Visceral/Parietal Pericardium

Membranes surrounding the heart or heart cavity

Top Portion of Abdominal Regions

Right Hypochondriac Region, Epigastric Region, Left Hypochondriac Region

Middle Portion of Abdominal Regions

Right Lumbar Region, Umbilical Region, Left Lumbar Region

Lower Portion of Abdominal Regions

Right Iliac Region, Hypogastric Region, Left Iliac Region

Cell Theory

Cells are the structural/functional units of life, all organisms are made of one or more cells, and cells arise from other cells.

Generalized Cell

All cells have common structures and functions; cytoplasm, plasma membrane, and nucleus

Composition of the Plasma Membrane

75% Phospholipids; 5% Glycolipids; 20% Cholesterol

Phospholipids

Composed of phosphate heads (polar and hydrophilic) and fatty acid tails (nonpolar and hydrophobic)

Glycolipids

Made with polar sugar groups on outer membrane surface

Cholesterol

Increases membrane stability

Membrane proteins

Allows communication with the environment, 50% of plasma membrane mass

Integral Protein

Firmly inserted into membrane, have hydrophobic/philic regions, function as channels/carriers, enzymes, or receptors.

Peripheral Proteins

Loosely attached to integral proteins, found on intracellular and extracellular, used for plasma membrane support, motor proteins, enzymes, and cell connections

6 Functions of Membrane Proteins

Transport, Receptors for signal transduction, Attachment to the cytoskeleton/extracellular matrix, Enzymatic activity, Intercellular joining, and Cell-cell recognition

Transport

Proteins can provide a channel across the membrane or hydrolyze ADP for active transport

Receptors for signal transduction

Protein may have a binding site on the outside of the cell that fits a messenger to initiate a chain of chemical reactions

Attachment to Cytoskeleton or Matrix

The Skeleton and Matrix anchor to proteins to fix location and maintain shape

Enzymatic Activity

A membrane protein may be an enzyme with its active site exposed, a team of enzymes may catalyze steps of a metabolic pathway

Intercellular Joining

Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together in junctions; membrane proteins (CAMs) provide temporary binding sites that guide cell migration and cell-cell interactions

Cell-Cell Recognition

Some glycoproteins (proteins bonded to short chains of sugars) serve as identification tags to be recognized by other cells.

Glycocalyx

Consists of sugars sticking out of the membrane (glycoproteins and glycolipids) , are biological markers for cell recognition

Tight Junctions

Integral proteins on adjacent cells form an impermeable junction, prevents fluids and most molecules from moving in between cells

Desmosomes

“rivets” or “spot welds” that anchor cells together in plaques, reduces chance of tearing

Gap Junctions

Transmembrane proteins form pores/connexons to allow small molecules to pass for cardiac/smooth muscle cells

Membrane Transport

Membranes are selectively permeable, passive or active

Simple Diffusion

Lipid soluble, hydrophobic molecules diffuse directly across the bilayer

Facilitated Diffusion

Certain lipophobic molecules are transported through protein carriers or through water filled channels

Channel mediated diffusion

Aqueous channels that transport ions and water (leakage and gated)

Carrier mediated diffusion

Transports molecules (sugars, etc) too large for channels, binding of substrate causes shape change in carrier

Osmosis

Water diffuses through the bilayer or through water channels called aquaporins

Isotonic

Solution with same nonpenetrating solute concentration as cytosol

Hypertonic

solution with a higher nonpenetrating solute than cytosol, water moves out of cell causing cell to shrink

Hypotonic

solution with a lower nonpenetrating solute than cytosol, water moves in the cell causing cell to swell

Active Transport

Occurs when solute is too large, solute isn’t lipid soluble, or solute cannot move down the concentration gradient

Antiporters

Transporters 1 substance into cell and a different one out of the cell

Symporters

Transport 2 different substances in the same direction