Consumer Culture

utilitarian meaning

perceived usefulness of a product in terms of its ability to perform physical tasks

• functional value

• performance, reliability, durability, number of features and price

sacred and secular meaning

adheres in those things that are designed or discovered to be supremely important

• symbolic and emotional value- experiences/products that link consumers to one another, to nature or to family

• secular meanings are reverse of sacred ones: mundane, the everyday

Hedonic meaning

experiences/products that are associated with specific feelings or facilitate or perpetuate feelings

• experiential and emotional value

• products that affect self-image

• experiences that affect self-states

social meaning

a reflexive relationship between social relationships and the goods individuals consume

• symbolic value

• people intentionally communicate statements about identity through consumption, others tend to see what people consume as expressions of who those people are

consuming as experience

accounting- consumers use interpretive frameworks to make sense of the consumption object

evaluating- consumers make value judgements about the consumption object

appreciating- consumers respond emotionally to the consumption object

consuming as integration

assimilating- consumers become competent participants in the social world of the consumption object

producing- consumers act to enhance their perception that they are significantly involved in the production of the consumption object

personalizing- consumers exert a personal influence on the consumption object

consuming as classification

through objects- using the manner in which shared meanings associated with a consumption object to classify themselves or others

through actions- using the manner in which consumers experience or interact with the consumption object to classify themselves or others

consuming as play

commune- when consumers share how they are experiencing the consumption object with the object becomes a mutual experience

socialize- consumers socialize by taking on a more performative style in which they use their experiences of the consumption object to entertain each other

identity is fluid

a constant process of negotiation that helps us generate an awareness of who we are, to position ourselves in relation to others and to function in society

Identitfy is relational

it is negotiated in respect of material objects, significant others and ideas

intrapersonal

self-narratives- stories are coherent, context sensitive accounts of experiences that provide a sense of continuity

self-relevant information- internalized self-schemas that represent a standard of comparison for new information

self-gifts- carry messages about identity and self-distinctiveness which contribute to self-esteem

interpersonal process

self is a reference point for evaluating others

awareness of self in a situation (self-consciousness); high and low self-monitors

consumption communicates socially shared meanings about identity

Example Q: Schouten and McAlexander (1995) explored the concept of subcultures of consumption. Define subcultures of consumption and explain their key characteristics, including the hierarchical social structure, unique ethos, and symbolic consumption practices. Use an example to demonstrate how subcultural membership influences consumer identity and behaviour

Subcultures of consumption are defined by Schouten and McAlexander (1995) as distinctive subgroups within society that are based on a shared commitment to a particular product, brand, or consumption activity. These groups are not only consumer segments but also complex social collectives that shape member identity and behaviour through shared values, rituals, and symbolic practices.

A key characteristic of subcultures of consumption is their hierarchical social structure. Members often progress through levels of status based on commitment, expertise, or authenticity. For example, in the Harley-Davidson biker subculture, veteran riders hold more social capital than newcomers, influencing norms and behaviours within the group.

These subcultures develop a unique ethos a shared set of beliefs, values, and lifestyles that differentiate members from the broader society. This ethos fosters a sense of belonging and reinforces the group's identity. For instance, sneakerhead communities value exclusivity, street credibility, and deep product knowledge.

Finally, symbolic consumption practices are central to these groups. Products serve as symbols of group identity and are used to express values and social standing. Limited-edition sneakers, tattoos in biker culture, or specific gear in gaming communities all serve as cultural markers within the subculture.

Membership in such subcultures deeply influences consumer identity, guiding brand loyalty, purchase decisions, and even lifestyle choices. consumption within these groups transcends utility, functioning instead as a powerful tool for self-expression, social integration, and personal meaning.

Example Q: Describe the processes involved in consumer learning and explain four types of learning (e.g., classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, and cognitive learning). How do these processes impact consumer decision-making?

Consumer learning is a foundational concept in consumer behaviour, it is the process where people acquire the knowledge and experience they use to make purchasing decisions. This learning is ongoing and is shaped by psychological processes and environmental influences.

The consumer learning process involves several key stages: motivation, cues, response, and reinforcement (Solomon, 2017). Motivation triggers the need to learn and environmental cues guide consumer attention, then responses are the behaviours performed, and reinforcement strengthens the chances of repeated behaviour. These form the basis for several distinct types of learning that influence consumer decision-making.

Classical conditioning is learning through association. In a consumer context, brands pair products with stimuli (e.g., music or visuals) to evoke emotional responses. For example, a perfume ad using romantic imagery aims to associate the scent with love or attraction. Over time, the consumer links the product with these desirable feelings.

Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences. Positive reinforcement (e.g. loyalty rewards) encourages repeat purchases, while negative reinforcement or punishment (e.g. dissatisfaction) discourages them. This form of learning is critical for habit formation and brand loyalty.

Observational learning also called modelling, is when consumers observe and imitate the behaviour of others, particularly opinion leaders or influencers. Social media has amplified this effect; users often emulate influencers’ choices, adopting brands not because of personal direct experience but because they learn to see it as a marker of success or satisfaction.

Cognitive learning emphasises internal mental processes. Unlike conditioning, it involves problem-solving and reasoning. Consumers process information, form hypotheses, and make decisions based on mental evaluation rather than direct experience. This is very relevant in high-involvement purchases, where consumers carefully research and compare alternatives.

Classical and operant conditioning create emotional and behavioural ties to products, observational learning shapes trends and social validation, and cognitive learning underpins rational choice and informed decision-making.

Understanding how consumers learn through association, consequence, imitation, and cognition allows marketers to design strategies that align with psychological principles and influence buying behaviour.

subculture of consumption

a distinctive subgroup of society that self-selects on a basis of a shared commitment to a particular product class, brand or consumption activity

• identifiable, hierarchical social structure

• unique ethos

• unique jargon, rituals and modes of symbolic expression

• homogenous styles or ideologies of consumptions

• opinion leading hard-core members

• styles may be imitates on aq wider basis

• may transcend boundaries

structure of subculture

• Within-group status is a function of how committed an individual is to the group's ideology of consumption

• Across-group status is based on judgements of the authenticity of other groups of as representatives of the subculture

ethos of a subculture

• The ethos is a set of core values which are accepted to varying degrees by all its members

• These values find expression in certain products and how they are used

• Where multiple subgroups coexist, expressions of the core values through symbolic consumption may reflect cultural or socio-economic idiosyncrasies of the subgroup

Harley Davidson Example of consumer tribe/subculture

HOG – Harley Owners Group – brand community “if you’re a member of HOG you are part of “a global family”

Becoming a member

• Usually means entering at the bottom of a status hierarchy and undergoing socialization.

• Socialization brings about a transformation of the individual that involves an evolution of motives and a deepening of commitment.

• Those who invest sufficient energy into a subculture may eventually internalize its values and norms and become hard-core members

Consumer tribe- co-consuming, heterogeneous group of people, inter-linked by the same subjectivity, the same passion, and capable of taking collective action, often short-lived but intense. People belong to multiple tribes at the same time

 

• A brand community is a specialized, non-geographically bound community based upon a structured set of social relationships among admirers of a brand who may be physically distant to one another.

• Here, meanings no longer reside so much in the brand as in the social links that people form as a result of using the brand.

Freuds psychoanalytic theory

unconscious and conscious mind

id- unconscious mind: all the instincts and psychic energies that exist at birth- is driven by the pleasure principles

superego- our conscious- represents traditional ideas and values of society (how you dress, your accent)

ego- based on reality- represents a conscious mind and is composed of perceptions, thoughts, memories and feelings (voice in ur head)

ex. Cadbury gorilla ad- him playing drums, nothing to do with chocolate but shows you can be the best version of yourself by eating their product

Jungs psychoanalytical theory

-            Personal unconscious and collective unconscious, together hold all the hidden contents of the mind.

-             Personal unconscious: previously conscious experiences that have been repressed, forgotten, or ignored.

-            Collective unconscious: a storehouse of latent memory traces, or archetypes, inherited from the human ancestral past, including prehuman or animal ancestry

Persona- different social masks we wear in different situations/groups

Anima/animus- feminine and masculine opposite genders and attributes of the psyche

Hero: young person who expands and improves and succeeds by passing through significant trials

Early mother: symbolic of fertility and abundance

The self: unification of conscious and unconscious mind

 

Implications of Jung’s theory:

Provides a way to explore myths, images, symbols and then building block for creating marketing communications

Many of the visual arts are used in promotional campaigns are considered a rice source of knowledge about archetypes

Selecting universal archetypes marketers have an opportunity to use similar promotional campaigns in many different cultures

Holt’s Typology of consumption practices example from Blog 1

Jean has emotional reactions to buying the best products, she is loyal to her brands. Through integration, Jean has a self extension by what products symbolize, the house symbolizing her family independence represented by her affording to finance her nice house. Her routines and loyalty express her identity as well as her choice of food representing her Italian culture. Jean demonstrates her values and who she is by her buying habits. Jean prides herself on a tidy house, she works full time as a bartender and cares about the customers as well as her children

another example of Subcultures of consumption (John W. Schouten and James H. Mcalexander)

Punk rock as a subculture, the structure is a hierarchy through experience, leadership, and commitment

Ethos: expressed through shared belief of authenticity “do it yourself” attitude rebellion against mainstream culture and celebrating individuality

Transformation: members go through integration and show transformation through consumption practices like purchasing apparel from bands, some can internalize and become hardcore members

They express their culture by their outward appearance with dyed hair, tattoos, piercings and band tees, their spending habits as consumers directly relate to their expression.

Fyre Festival- consumer motivation example

Billy McFarland advertised the luxury experience of a lifetime with yachts, celebrities, models private jets and gourmet catering. Consumer motivations for this event were achievement, affiliation, uniqueness, scarcity and ego.

elevate normal peoples status making them exclusive members of the first fyre festival, providing them once in a life time experiences being able to interact with influencers and celebrities. Would allow them to post exclusive content. Scarcity among the low number of tickets at a high price point. This opportunity boosted egos and heightened sense of importance, status and self-worth.

Ted Baker’s AW15 campaign 'Cabinet of Curiosities', featured aspirational characters and a richly stylised narrative that reflected the brand’s playful and sophisticated identity. Analyse this campaign in the context of consumption theory. How does Ted Baker use brand personas and storytelling to influence consumer identity and perceived lifestyle? What lessons can marketers learn from this case?

Ted Baker uses customer personas to give consumers of an attainable lifestyle they can demonstrate if they buy the clothing line. Ted gives each traits to allow consumers to not only build a connection with these identities but to find themselves in these personas.

Secret Show-off: any gender or ethnicity, young at heart, quirky, professional with disposable income. urban, stylish, career orientated, liberal, reads fashion blogs brand and style conscious, tech-savvy, innovative media savvy, building their identity and finding their direction in life.

Museum, both good at their profession, rivalry, different outfits and accessories each discovery for the media, suave and sophisticated people, come together in the end.

If this is not your current lifestyle it can be if you buy this clothing, giving successful, stylish and elevated young adults inspires consumers to look and feel their best in Bakers clothes.

Marketers can learn that even if the demographic is not that big if you make the traits attainable and desirable it will inspire people to want the brand and be just like those personas.

Big Bang example for Reciprocity of gifts and social relations

People view gift giving differently, in Sheldon’s case he sees it as an economic exchange and burdensome as he must reciprocate the gift with something of equal value. Penny views gift giving as a sentimental gesture among friends, it was thoughtful and represented community.

Sheldon sees it as an obligation, he was stressed and then after opening her priceless gift of a napkin signed by his idol he then brought out all the gift baskets and hugged her to try and equate the value of her present to him.

Describe ways to increase consumer involvement

Using creative marketing to engage consumers, often by appealing to hedonic needs, or through the use of prominent stimuli and celebrity endorsers.

Linking low-involvement products with high-involvement issues. (a juice product is linked to fitness, health or self image)

Promoting the product in a high-involvement medium (like tik tok) instead of a low-involvement medium (like radio)

Adapting the advertising medium to the product category – including specialist magazines and online communities that product enthusiasts read and participate.

Building a bond with consumers – branding efforts are often about forming deep meaningful connections with consumers. 

characteristics of INTERpersonal influence

Normative (utilitarian) Influence- Occurs when an individual fulfils others’ expectations to gain a direct reward or to avoid a sanction 

Value-Expressive (identification) Influence- Occurs when individuals use others’ norms, values, and behaviors as a guide for their own 

Informational Influence- Occurs when an individual uses the values, norms, and behaviors of others as credible evidence about reality 

**Note in most circumstances influence of friends and acquaintances is not easily separated into normative, value-expressive, and informational forms of influence 

Appreciate consumers as rational decision makers and as affective decision makers

Adaptive decision-makers 

• Consumers attempt to determine what aspects of their choice relate to their goals (goal relevance) and what is at stake in these choices (goal congruence).  

• Traditionally, consumer researchers have viewed consumers as primarily rational and cognitive. 

Rational & Cognitive models  

• Economic models describe consumers as rational and assume that we deliberately collect information, weigh alternatives, and make decisions that lead to optimum outcomes.  

• Cognitive phycology models describe consumers as combining items of information about attributes to reach a decision.  

• Beliefs (rather than emotions) decide attitudes and behaviours as cognitive models assume that consumers make decisions in a thoughtful and systematic way. 

• Cognitive learning – internal mental processes Information → Cognition → Affect → Behaviour → Satisfaction 

Multiple Selves

We often use products: to reach ideal self and be consistent with actual self

Self-product congruence: we choose products when their attributes match some aspect of the self

Extended Self: the self symbolically extends onto possessions (Belk 1999)

-            levels: individual, family, community, group

Consuming products can facilitate our active role identities

-            use this when marketing to understand how people will respond in different situations

McCracken (1985) – Culture and Consumption: The Movement of Meaning

· Core Idea: Cultural meaning flows from society → goods → individuals.

· Key Mechanisms:

o Advertising & fashion system: transfer meaning from culture to goods.

o Rituals (possession, exchange, grooming, divestment): transfer meaning from goods to people.

· Culturally Constituted World: provides “categories” (e.g., time, gender, status) and “principles” that shape consumption.

· Consumers don’t just buy stuff—they buy meaning.

Holt (2003) Brands and Branding

· Brands are cultural stories, not just marketing tools.

· Brand value comes from:

o Company efforts

o Pop culture

o Influencers

o Consumers themselves

· Strong brands become part of shared culture and shape identity.

· Branding should focus on shaping perception, not just product features.

Jetten et al. (2017) – Identity and Economic Inequality

· Uses Social Identity Theory to analyze inequality’s effects.

· 5 Hypotheses:

1. Inequality makes wealth a key category (us vs. them).

2. Inequality increases group-based stereotyping.

3. Poor = more negatively stereotyped.

4. Perceived unfairness rises with rigid or illegitimate wealth structures.

5. Effects depend on your social position.

· Inequality harms group relations and social cohesion.

Parsons (2009) Consumer Collectives

· Explores subcultures, tribes, microcultures, and brand communities.

· These replace traditional communities (churches, neighborhoods).

· Consumption is now a means of social bonding.

· Subcultures create meaning through shared symbols, rituals, and practices.

· Subcultures can be co-opted or commodified by the mainstream (e.g., punk, hoodies).

Maguire & Mathews (2012) Cultural Intermediaries

· Cultural intermediaries = people who shape taste, value, and perception.

o Examples: influencers, critics, stylists, editors, curators.

· They act as bridges between producers and consumers.

· Not everyone is a cultural intermediary—expertise and social capital matter.

· Intermediaries play a big role in defining what’s “cool” or valuable.

Komter (2007) Gifts and Social Relations

· Gifts are not just economic; they have symbolic, emotional, and moral value.

· Reciprocity is key—gifts maintain social bonds but can also manipulate or offend.

· Gifts are rituals that form and shape relationships.

· The gift is a “total social phenomenon” (Mauss).

Belk (1988) Possessions and the Extended Self

· We are what we own.

· Possessions become extensions of the self, shaping identity.

· Losing possessions = losing part of self.

· Identity forms through having, doing, and being.

· Examples: cars, pets, homes, photos—personal and symbolic.

Holbrook & Hirschman (1982) – Experiential Aspects of Consumption

· Critiques the rational model of consumption.

· Introduces the experiential view:

o Fantasies (imagination, escape)

o Feelings (emotions)

o Fun (pleasure and enjoyment)

· Consumption is subjective and emotional, not just logical.

· Laid the groundwork for experiential marketing, hedonic consumption, and emotional branding.

Elliott (1997) – Existential Consumption and Irrational Desire

· Consumption is existential: helps people create and express meaning.

· Five consumption tensions:

1. Material vs symbolic

2. Social vs self

3. Desire vs satisfaction

4. Rational vs irrational

5. Creativity vs constraint

· Ads and brands are tools for identity construction, not just persuasion.

· Consumers are not passive—they actively interpret and co-create meaning.

Schouten & McAlexander (1995) – Subcultures of Consumption

· Introduces the idea of subcultures of consumption: groups formed around shared consumption practices, like Harley-Davidson riders.

· These are self-selected, not based on class, race, etc.

· Key traits:

o Shared values, rituals, identity.

o Clear hierarchical structure.

o Unique symbols and jargon.

· Subcultures can resist or be co-opted by mainstream culture.

· Method: 3 years of immersive ethnography—researchers became part of the biker community.

Muniz & O’Guinn (2001) – Brand Community

· A brand community is a non-geographic community based on shared admiration for a brand.

· 3 core features:

1. Shared consciousness (a “we-ness” among members)

2. Rituals and traditions

3. Moral responsibility (supporting and helping other members)

· Examples: Ford Bronco, Macintosh, Saab.

· Brand communities create emotional and symbolic connections, often resisting or reshaping brand narratives.

Holt (1995) – How Consumers Consume

· Proposes a typology of consumption practices based on ethnographic research.

· 4 modes of consuming:

1. Experience – for emotion/sensation (e.g., food, sports).

2. Integration – to express or build identity (e.g., tattoos).

3. Classification – to signal social identity (e.g., fashion).

4. Play – improvisational, imaginative (e.g., cosplay, fan culture).

· Consumption is not about the object itself, but how it's used and what it means socially.

Consumption as Experience: Consumers focus on the subjective, emotional, and sensory experience of consuming. It’s about how the consumption makes them feel in the moment.

·        Ex. Attending a live concert where the excitement, atmosphere, and emotional connection to the music create a powerful personal experience. People don’t just listen, t hey feel the beat, share the energy of the crowd, and immerse themselves in the vibe.

2. Consumption as Integration: Consumers use products or experiences to express or reinforce their identity, integrating them into their sense of self or lifestyle.

·        Ex.  A vegan skateboarder might wear a specific brand ethically produced clothing and use cruelty-free cosmetics to align with and express their values. These choices are not just about function—they help shape and reflect who they are

3. Consumption as Play: Consumers engage with consumption objects in interactive, imaginative, or creative ways—often with others—turning the activity into a form of play.

·        Ex.  Children (or adults!) playing with LEGO to build imaginative structures, role-play scenarios, or recreate movies. The product becomes a medium for shared creativity and fun

4. Consumption as Classification: Consumers use consumption to classify themselves and others socially signalling status, group membership, taste, or values.

·        Ex. Wearing designer clothing or driving a luxury car as a way to indicate wealth or elite status. These consumption choices act as markers to others about where the consumer fits (or wants to be seen) in the social hierarchy

Fournier (1998) – Consumers and Their Brands

· Applies relationship theory to consumer-brand dynamics.

· Consumers form real emotional relationships with brands, like:

o Committed partnerships

o Casual friendships

o Fling-like or rebound relationships

· Introduces the concept of Brand Relationship Quality (BRQ)—a tool to measure emotional closeness, trust, love, etc.

· Suggests brands can act as active relationship partners via human-like traits and stories.

Rook (1985) – The Ritual Dimension of Consumer Behavior

· Consumption is deeply tied to rituals, both everyday (morning coffee) and ceremonial (weddings, holidays).

· Rituals involve:

o A fixed sequence of actions

o Symbolic meaning

o Emotional engagement

· Types: grooming, gift-giving, rites of passage, social rituals.

· Marketers can embed products into ritualized behavior to deepen consumer connection.

Davies & Fitchett (2004) – Crossing Culture

· Explores what happens when people transition between cultural environments (e.g., migrants, students, travelers).

· Introduces the idea of “cultural fracture”:

o Symbolic (struggling with meaning systems)

o Emotional (feeling isolated/lost)

o Functional (can’t navigate the market, e.g., payment systems)

· Consumer goods and habits help people cope with and bridge cultures.

· Critiques overuse of nationality/ethnicity as cultural indicators—urges for more nuanced, mixed-method research.

Avoidance, negative, non-member

Aspirational, positive, non-member

Disclaimant, negative member

Contactual, positive, member

5 human motivations

Achievement motive: need to experience emotion in connection with evaluated performances

Power motive: need to have control or influence over oneself and others

Affiliation motive: need to be with people

Uniqueness motive: need to perceive oneself as different from others

Self esteem motive: need to maintain a positive view of the self

Describe consumer rituals and the four elements involved (ritual artefacts, ritual script, performance roles, and audience). How do marketers use rituals to enhance the symbolic value of their products?

Consumer rituals are patterns of behavior that are repeated, symbolic, and often shared by members of a culture or community. These rituals can be personal (like a morning coffee routine) or social (like celebrating birthdays or holidays), and they help consumers make sense of their world, express identity, and connect with others. Marketers study and leverage these rituals to strengthen the emotional and symbolic value of their products.

Four Elements of Consumer Rituals

1. Ritual Artefacts
   These are the objects or products used during the ritual. They carry symbolic meaning and are often central to the ritual experience.
   Example: Birthday candles, greeting cards, wedding rings, or Thanksgiving turkeys.

2. Ritual Script
   This refers to the sequence of behaviors, actions, and gestures involved in the ritual. It provides structure and ensures consistency across participants.
   Example: Singing "Happy Birthday" before blowing out candles; opening gifts during Christmas.

3. Performance Roles
   These are the roles that different individuals play in the ritual. Participants may have specific responsibilities or symbolic positions.
   Example: The bride and groom in a wedding, the gift-giver and recipient in a holiday exchange.

4. Audience
   The individuals who witness or validate the ritual, whether actively participating or passively observing. Their presence reinforces the ritual’s significance.
   Example: Guests at a wedding, spectators at a graduation ceremony.

How Marketers Use Rituals to Enhance Symbolic Value

1. Embedding Products into Existing Rituals
   Marketers position products as essential parts of well-established rituals.
   Example: Coca-Cola associating itself with Christmas through Santa imagery; Hallmark embedding its cards into holiday and life events.

2. Creating New Rituals
   Brands sometimes invent rituals to increase engagement and emotional connection.
   Example: Kit Kat's "Have a break, have a Kit Kat" campaign encourages a daily coffee-and-snack ritual.

3. Customizing Offerings for Ritual Use
   Limited editions or specially packaged products are designed for ritual contexts.
   Example: Seasonal Starbucks drinks (e.g., Pumpkin Spice Latte) that align with fall traditions.

4. Storytelling and Advertising
   Marketers use narratives to reinforce the role of their product within a ritual, making it feel culturally or emotionally necessary.
   Example: Jewelry ads that highlight giving a diamond ring as a rite of passage for engagement.

Conclusion

By aligning with consumer rituals, marketers tap into deeper emotional needs like belonging, identity, and tradition. This enhances the symbolic value of products, making them not just useful items but meaningful parts of people’s lives and stories.

Discuss the importance of consumer motivation and involvement. Define motivation and describe five consumer needs (e.g., need for achievement) and how these needs influence consumer behaviour and product choices.

• Need for Achievement

  • Definition: Desire for personal accomplishment, success, and mastery.

  • Influence on Behavior: Consumers with high achievement needs may be drawn to premium brands, performance-based products (e.g., fitness trackers, business tools), or products that symbolize success (e.g., luxury watches, diplomas).

  • Example: Choosing an Apple MacBook or a high-end vehicle as a signal of success.

• Need for Affiliation

  • Definition: Desire to belong, connect with others, and be socially accepted.

  • Influence on Behavior: These consumers often choose products that help them fit in, build relationships, or participate in group activities.

  • Example: Buying team jerseys, joining fitness classes, or choosing popular social media apps.

• Need for Power

  • Definition: Desire to control, influence, or have authority over others or one’s environment.

  • Influence on Behavior: Leads consumers to buy status-oriented or dominant products.

  • Example: Luxury cars, executive suits, or high-tech home automation systems.

• Need for Uniqueness

  • Definition: Desire to stand out, be different, and express individual identity.

  • Influence on Behavior: Consumers may seek customized or limited-edition products, niche brands, or unconventional fashion.

  • Example: Personalized phone cases, custom sneakers, indie fashion labels.

• Need for Security (or Safety)

  • Definition: Desire for stability, safety, and predictability.

  • Influence on Behavior: Motivates consumers to choose trusted brands, insurance, warranties, or products that promise protection.

  • Example: Buying health insurance, baby-proofing products, or choosing Volvo for its safety reputation.