NSG 532 Unit 1

4 Part Definition of Physiology

Study of bodily functions in a healthy organism

Intermolecular interactions and communications w/in an organism and with its internal/external environment

Mutual relationships between an organism and its microbiome

Homeostatic processes

Is physiology focused more on organic compounds or inorganic compounds?

Organic

Homeostasis definition

Variables are regulated so that internal conditions (including microbiome composition and diversity) remain stable and relatively constant

What 3 characteristics do all living beings share?

A source of life information (DNA/RNA)

Cellular organelles to process info into structural and functional proteins

Cellular organelles to generate energy

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

Genotype - the actual information printed in the DNA

Phenotype - how the information is physically expressed

Diversity begins with the variations among genotype information

What is the beginning of the life energy process?

The sun provides solar energy

What do plants do with inorganic compounds CO2, H2O, and sunlight?

Combine to produce organic compounds and oxygen using photosynthesis

What is the byproduct of the use of oxygen to breakdown organic compounds?

ATP - aerobic respiration

What is the difference between autotrophs and heterotrophs?

Autotrophs can convert inorganic compounds into organic compounds - only plants able to do this

Heterotrophs must consume organic compounds such as plants or animals that eat plants to create ATP

What are the four most important biomolecules?

DNA

RNA

Proteins

ATP

Of DNA, RNA, Proteins, and ATP which are information and which are energy?

DNA, RNA, Proteins - Information

ATP - Energy

What is the difference between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration?

Which is more common in humans?

Aerobic - w/the use of oxygen

Anaerobic - w/o the use of oxygen

99% of human energy production is aerobic

How many ATP does the process of glycolysis create?

2 ATP molecules

What organelle does the krebs cycle take place in?

Mitochondria

How many ATP does the Krebs cycle produce?

2 ATP

How many ATP does the Electron Transport Chain produce?

34 ATP

How many ATP total are produced with the breakdown of organic compounds in aerobic cellular respiration?

38 ATP

What element is needed for the electron transport chain to work properly?

Oxygen

What purpose does oxygen serve in aerobic cellular respiration?

Oxygen increases the efficiency of ATP production

How many ATP does anaerobic cellular respiration create? What are other byproducts?

2 ATP

Byproducts are 2 molecules of lactate

What type of cells use lactic acid fermentation anaerobic respiration?

Some bacteria, liver cells, muscle cells

What are two types of anaerobic cellular respiration?

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Alcoholic Fermentation

What type of organisms use alcoholic fermentation?

Yeast and some bacteria

Explain the name behind Adenosine Triphosphate

Adenine + Ribose = Adenosine

3 Phosphate = Triphosphate

Moving from ATP to ADP to AMP is creating or using energy?

Using energy

Moving from AMP to ADP to ATP is creating or using energy?

Creating energy

What is the difference between dephosphorylation and phosphorylation?

Which uses energy and which stores energy?

Dephosphorylation is the removal of a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP. This is using energy.

Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP. This is storage/creation of energy.

What does the free phosphate created by dephosphorylation do?

Activates inactive molecules elsewhere

Which enzyme is responsible for phosyphorylation?

ATP Synthase

Which enzyme is responsible for dephosphorylation?

ATPase

What is NAD?

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

An electron carrier

What is NAD important for?

Carries hydrogen to create energy.

Called NADH when carrying hydrogen

What is FAD?

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide

An electron carrier

What is FAD important for?

Carrying hydrogen for energy creation

Called FADH when carrying hydrogen

What vitamin is important for the creation of FAD and NAD?

Vitamin B

What occurs in the outer membrane of the mitochondria?

Transport

What occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria?

Electron Transport Chain and ATP Synthase

What occurs in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria?

H+ gradients

What occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria?

Krebs cycle

What type of "machine" is the mitochondria in cells?

An ATP generating machine

How does the H+ gradient work?

Creates a high concentration of hydrogen ions in the intermembrane space.

The high gradient of ions drives H+ back through the ATP synthase found in the inner membrane.

ATP synthase becomes activated and synthesizes ATP from ADP

Define an Exergonic reaction

Any reaction that produces ATP

In an exergonic reaction will the stored ATP level be higher in the reactants or the products?

The reactants --stored ATP.

What are four common exergonic reactions?

Carbohydrates into glucose

Proteins into amino acids

Lipids into fatty acids

Nucleic acids into nucleotides

What are the reactants called in exergonic reactions?

Bio-Polymers

What are the products called in exergonic reactions?

Bio-Monomers

What is an endergonic reaction?

A reaction that utilizes/consumes ATP

Is the level of stored ATP higher in the reactants or products of an endergonic reaction?

The products

Which has greater potential energy? Biomonomers or Biopolymers?

Biopolymers --- more stored ATP

What are the products in endergonic reactions?

Biopolymers

What are the reactants in endergonic reactions?

Biomonomers

What is included in the definition of metabolism?

Endergonic reactions+ Exergonic reactions

Are exergonic reactions catabolic or anabolic?

Catabolic

Does catabolism generate or utilize ATP?

Generate ATP - breakdown of biopolymers

Does anabolism generate or utilize ATP?

Utilize - creation of biopolymers

Define microbiome

The microbes and their genetic material that live on and in the human body

Many interactions occur between host and microbiome

What is the ratio of host cells compared to microbiome cells?

10% host cells, 90% microbiome cells.

Where is the the majority of the microbiome found in humans?

The GI tract

What is the composition of the microbiome?

Bacteria, Archaea, Viruses, Yeast, Fungi, Protozoa

Is the microbiome the same from individual to individual?

No, differ remarkably in composition and diversity of microbiome

How are newborns and the microbiome related?

Healthy newborn immune responses depend on early exposure to mothers microbiome

C/S babies should be swabbed w/sample from vaginal canal - exposure to microbiome

Define dysbiosis

Abnormal alterations in the composition/diversity of the microbiome

What can dysbiosis lead to?

Higher incidence of inflammation and cancers

What are causes of dysbiosis?

Genetic changes, Lifestyle, Diet, Misuse of Abx, Infections, Immune system disorders, Aging, Chemotherapy/Radiation

Are plants and animals eukaryotes or prokaryotes?

Eukaryotes

Are bacteria and archaea eukaryotes or prokaryotes?

Prokaryotes

What are the three components of cell theory?

All living things are made of cells

Cells are structural and functional units of life

All cells arise only from pre-existing cells

Since viruses have a source of life information, why are they not considered cellular?

Only contain information

Have no machinery to process information or machinery to generate energy

Explain what is meant by obligate intracellular pathogen

Come into body/host to utilize machinery in order to process information and replicate -- cannot survive otherwise

Must live inside cell to become a pathogen

What protects a viruses nucleic acid?

A capsid

Sometimes an embryo

Describe prokaryotes

Prokaryotes (Bacteria/Archaea)

-Nucleoid (no nuclear membrane)

- One circular DNA floats freely

-No membrane bound organelles

- No mitochondria

-Divide by binary fission

-Aerobic and anaerobic

-Unicellular

-Have plasmid

-Produce ATP w/enzymes in cell membrane

Describe Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes

-Contain nucleus

-Linear DNA in nucleus

-Have membrane bound organelles

-Have mitochondria

-Divide by mitosis and meiosis

-Mostly aerobic

-Mostly acellular

-No plasmid

Describe stem cells

Found in multicellular eukaryotes

Unidifferentiated cells - can differentiate into specialized cells

Can divide to produce more stem cells through mitosis

What are two properties unique to stem cells?

Self-renewal

-Can go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining undifferentiated state

Potency

-Capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types

Explain symmetric division

1 Stem Cell (undifferentiated) splits into 2 Stem Cells (both undifferentiated)

Explain asymmetric division

1 stem cell (undifferentiated) splits into 1 progenitor cell (more specific but not yet differentiated) and 1 stem cell (undifferentiated)

Explain progenitor division

1 Progenitor cell (more specific, not differentiated) splits into 2 Progenitor cells

Explain Terminal division

1 Progenitor cell becomes 1 fully differentiated cell

What do totipotent cells have the capacity to differentiate to?

Totipotent cells can differentiate to all cell types including placenta

What can pluripotent cells differentiate into?

Pluripotent cells can become nearly any type of cell except placenta cells

Between totipotent cells and pluripotent cells, which has the ability to construct a complete, viable organism?

Totipotent cells - can create an embryo

What can multipotent stem cells differentiate to? What is an example?

Only a few cell types.

One example is Bone Marrow Hematopoeitic Multipotent stem cells - can become RBCs or WBCs

Why is a unipotent stem cell still considered a stem cell?

Have the property of self renewal - which distinguishes from non-stem cells.

Examples are egg and sperm unipotent stem cells.

Describe the endoplasmic reticulum

An interconnected network of tube-like structures associated with the nuclear membrane

What is the role of the endoplasmic recticulum?

Protein and Lipid Biosynthesis

What is the difference between the rough endoplasmic recticulum and the smooth endoplasmic recticulum?

Rough ER is covered with ribosomes

Smooth ER has no ribosomes

The most important function of the rough endoplasmic recticulum is what?

Protein synthesis and initiation site for post translational modifications

What happens to partially processed proteins produced in the the RER?

They are packed into protein transport vesicles and complete their modifications in the golgi

What type of things are synthesized in the smooth endoplasmic recticulum?

Lipids, phospholipids, steroids, and cholesterol

What are other functions of the SER?

Formation of transport vesicles which migrate to the golgi apparatus

Detoxification of drugs

Regulation of Ca++ concentration in myocytes

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

Receives transport vesicles from RER/SER

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids before they are sent to their destination.

What face of the Golgi apparatus recieves transport vesicle?

The Cis Face

What face of the Golgi apparatus releases secretory vesicles?

The Trans Face

Describe Mitochondrial DNA

A small portion of eukaryotic DNA - 37 genes

Involved in ATP biosynthesis

Inherited solely from the mother

What do peroxisomes do to long chain fatty acids and how do they achieve this?

Oxidation (breakdown) of long chain fatty acids that creates small chain fatty acids

Oxidases are used in this process

What substance is produced by peroxisomes?

How are cells protected from this substance?

Hydrogen peroxide

Catalases break down hydrogen peroxide

What are small chain fatty acids used for?

Sent to the mitochondria as fuel for generation of ATP

What are plamalogens and what purpose do they serve?

A phospholipid produced by peroxisomes

Necessary for the normal functions of nerve cells, pneumocytes, cardiomyocytes, and immune cells.

Explain the biosynthesis of peroxisomes

RER produces peroxisomes vesicle

Free ribosomes produce peroxisomal proteins

The vesicle and protein combine to form a peroxisome

Describe the process of Endocytosis

Internalization of extracellular and cell membrane macromolecules.

Brings particles inside of cell to the lysosome to either be degraded or recycled