Interpersonal Communications Exam 1

appropriateness

The degree to which your communication matches situational, relational, and cultural expectations regarding how people should communicate. Example: Using formal language and professional titles when speaking to a professor during office hours, rather than casual slang.

effectiveness

The ability to use communication to accomplish specific goals or objectives in an interaction. Example: Successfully persuading a group project team member to finish their assigned section by Friday through clear and encouraging messaging.

ethics

The moral principles, values, and guidelines that dictate whether communication behaviors are considered right or wrong. Example: Refusing to spread unverified rumors about a coworker because honesty and respect are core ethical commitments.

feedback

The verbal and nonverbal messages sent in response to other messages during an interpersonal interaction. Example: Nodding your head and saying "I understand" while a friend explains a difficult situation.

fields of experience

The accumulated life experiences, cultural backgrounds, gender, values, and beliefs that each participant brings to an interaction. Example: Two colleagues interpreting a corporate restructuring differently based on their past work histories in different industries.

impersonal communication

An exchange of messages that has a negligible or nonexistent perceived impact on our thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and relationships. Example: Asking a grocery store cashier for the total cost of your items in a routine, transactional manner.

interactive communication model

A view of communication as a process involving senders and receivers, but also incorporating feedback and fields of experience. Example: A manager delivering a company-wide update via a town hall meeting where employees submit written questions and receive direct verbal replies.

interpersonal communication

A dynamic form of communication between two (or more) people in which the messages exchanged significantly influence their thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and relationships. Example: Two close friends having a deep conversation about their future career aspirations and emotional worries.

interpersonal communication competence

The consistent ability to communicate in ways that are appropriate, effective, and ethical. Example: Navigating a disagreement with a romantic partner by calmly expressing feelings without resorting to personal attacks, while listening to their perspective.

I-It

A communication relationship in which we treat other people as objects or vehicles for our own goals, rather than as unique human beings. Example: Treating a server at a restaurant merely as a tool to bring food, avoiding eye contact and polite pleasantries.

I-Thou

A communication relationship in which we embrace and cherish the fundamental uniqueness of other people, viewing them as human beings worthy of deep respect. Example: Listening intently and empathetically to a grieving friend without judging or trying to rush their emotional process.

linear communication model

A depiction of communication as an activity in which information flows in one direction, from a starting point to an end point, without ongoing feedback. Example: Broadcasting an emergency weather alert over an automated radio system where listeners cannot reply.

meta-communication

Communication about communication, including verbal and nonverbal cues that clarify how a message should be interpreted. Example: Smiling and saying "I'm just kidding" after making a sarcastic remark to ensure the listener doesn't take it seriously.

transactional communication model

A multi-directional model where all participants constantly exchange verbal and nonverbal messages and feedback simultaneously, co-creating meaning. Example: A heated yet constructive brainstorming session where colleagues rapidly build off each other's spoken ideas and body language cues in real time.

dismissive attachment

An attachment style characterized by a low-anxiety, high-avoidance mindset, where individuals view close relationships as unimportant or secondary to self-reliance. Example: An adult who avoids long-term romantic commitments and insists they are entirely self-sufficient, believing partners only hold them back.

face

The public self-presentation that we want others to see, know, and accept during social interactions. Example: Acting composed, knowledgeable, and confident during a job interview to project an image of a capable professional.

fearful attachment

An attachment style characterized by high anxiety and high avoidance, where individuals desire close relationships but fear rejection and pain. Example: Someone who desperately wants a romantic partner but pulls away immediately whenever intimacy starts to develop out of fear of being abandoned.

interpersonal process model of intimacy

A model proposing that true intimacy is achieved when self-disclosure is met with perceived partner responsiveness, including understanding, validation, and caring. Example: Sharing a deeply personal insecurity with a partner and feeling comforted and accepted when they respond with empathy.

looking-glass-self

The idea that our self-concept is influenced by how we think other people perceive and evaluate us. Example: A teenager concluding that they are funny because classmates frequently laugh and compliment their jokes.

mask

An outward-facing public self-design or persona that is designed to veil private aspects of one's personality or inner feelings. Example: Forcing a cheerful smile and projecting professional enthusiasm at a retail job even while experiencing a stressful personal day.

preoccupied attachment

An attachment style characterized by high anxiety and low avoidance, where individuals crave intense intimacy while fearing that their partner will abandon them. Example: Constantly checking a partner's text message history and demanding constant reassurance of their affection.

secure attachment

An attachment style characterized by low anxiety and low avoidance, where individuals view themselves as worthy of love and view close relationships as safe and fulfilling. Example: A person who enters a relationship confident in their own worth, openly communicates needs, and trusts their partner's support.

self

An evolving composite of self-awareness, self-concept, and self-esteem that shapes who we think we are. Example: Recognizing your own tendency to be creative, your introverted preferences, and your strong work ethic.

self-awareness

The ability to step outside yourself and view your own actions, thoughts, and feelings as an observer might see them. Example: Realizing mid-argument that your voice is raised out of frustration rather than the other person's actual argument.

self-concept

Your overall perception of who you are, based on the beliefs, attitudes, and values you hold about yourself. Example: Believing you are an empathetic listener, a dedicated student, and someone who values honesty above all.

self-concept clarity

The degree to which your self-concept is clearly and consistently defined, stable, and unified over time. Example: Having a firm, unchanging understanding of your core career goals and personal values regardless of shifting peer opinions.

self-discrepancy theory

A theory suggesting that your self-esteem is determined by how closely your actual self matches your ideal self and your ought self. Example: Feeling disappointed and having lower self-esteem because your actual grades fall far short of the ideal professional standard you set for yourself.

self-esteem

The overall positive or negative value that you assign to yourself and your worth as a person. Example: Maintaining a high level of self-esteem by recognizing your personal growth, strengths, and accomplishments.

social comparison

The process of observing and assigning meaning to others' behaviors and achievements to evaluate our own skills, talents, and worth. Example: Comparing your athletic performance on the track team to the fastest runner to gauge your own improvement.

social penetration theory

A model proposing that self-disclosure unfolds in layers like an onion, moving from superficial information to intimate details as relationships develop. Example: Moving from discussing favorite foods during a first meeting to sharing childhood trauma after months of dating.

warranting value

The degree to which information about someone online is supported by outside evidence that cannot be easily manipulated by the person themselves. Example: Finding a professor's biography and publication list on an official university website rather than their self-edited personal blog.

actor-observer effect

The tendency to attribute other people's negative behaviors to internal causes (their personality) while attributing our own negative behaviors to external causes (situational factors). Example: Blaming another driver's abrupt lane change on them being a reckless, selfish driver, but excusing your own abrupt lane change by claiming you didn't see the exit in time.

algebraic impressions

Forming and constantly updating an overall impression of someone by cautiously calculating and integrating positive and negative information we learn about them. Example: Gradually adjusting your impression of a new coworker upward as they help you with tasks, while slightly deducting points whenever they miss deadlines.

attributions

Explanations that we create for why people behave the way they do, which can be internal or external. Example: Concluding that a friend is late to dinner because they are disorganized (internal attribution) or because they got stuck in unexpected highway construction (external attribution).

two components of empathy

The dual capacity to experience emotional resonance with another person's feelings (perspective-taking and empathetic concern) and to understand their cognitive viewpoint. Example: Feeling a sense of shared sadness while listening to a friend recount a breakup, while also understanding the specific reasons why the relationship ended.

Perspective-taking: The cognitive ability to understand someone's viewpoint without necessarily feeling it.

Empathic concern: The emotional resonance—feeling compassion, care, or sadness for another person's emotional state.

empathy mind-set

A personal belief system regarding whether empathy is a fixed trait you either have or don't have, or a flexible skill that can be developed through effort. Example: Believing that you can improve your ability to understand diverse viewpoints by actively practicing active listening and open-mindedness.

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate internal causes and underestimate external factors when explaining other people's negative behavior. Example: Assuming a waiter is naturally rude and incompetent when they take a long time to bring your food, ignoring the possibility of kitchen understaffing.

Gestalt

A general, overall impression of a person that is formulated quickly as positive or negative based on limited initial information. Example: Deciding almost immediately upon meeting someone at a party that they are friendly and trustworthy based on their warm smile and open body language.

halo effect

The tendency to positively interpret other people's specific behaviors or traits because we hold an overall positive Gestalt or impression of them. Example: Assuming a colleague who is well-dressed and charming must also be brilliant at data analysis and financial forecasting.

horn effect

The tendency to negatively interpret other people's specific behaviors or traits because we hold an overall negative Gestalt or impression of them. Example: Assuming that a coworker who made a blunt remark in a meeting must also be dishonest, lazy, and bad at their job.

negativity effect

The tendency to place heavy emphasis on negative information we learn about a person over positive information when forming impressions. Example: Remembering one critical comment a professor made on your essay while completely overlooking three glowing positive remarks.

positivity bias

The tendency for initial Gestalts or impressions to be predominantly positive when first meeting and evaluating people. Example: Assuming most people you meet at a professional networking mixer are friendly, competent, and well-intentioned until proven otherwise.

punctuation

The structuring of a communication event into identifiable causes and effects to understand who started a conflict and how it progressed. Example: Viewing an argument as a cycle where your nagging (cause) leads to your partner withdrawing (effect), while your partner views it oppositely.

salience

The degree to which particular people or aspects of their communication attract our attention during an interaction. Example: Noticing a person wearing a bright neon jacket and shouting loudly in an otherwise quiet and muted library.

schemata

Mental structures or templates containing clustered ideas, knowledge, and expectations that we use to help us interpret and make sense of information. Example: Using your mental schema of a "restaurant" to know that you should wait to be seated, look at a menu, and tip your server.

stereotyping

A streamlined categorization of people into social groups and evaluating them based solely on preconceived notions about those groups. Example: Assuming an elderly person at a store counter will struggle to use digital payment methods just because of their age.

4 Principles of Interpersonal Communication | Interpersonal communication conveys both content and relationship information

Content information is the literal, semantic meaning of the words spoken.

Relationship information consists of signals regarding how each person views the relationship (e.g., signals of status, affinity, or power conveyed through tone or nonverbal cues).

The relationship level refers to the unspoken dynamic between speakers—such as power, status, and affection—that dictates how a message should be interpreted. For example, when a roommate asks, "Could you take out the trash?" the content is simply about a household chore, but a warm tone signals equality and partnership, whereas a demanding tone signals superiority and frustration. Ultimately, while content tells you what is being said, the relationship level reveals how the speakers view their connection in that moment.

4 Principles of Interpersonal Communication | Interpersonal communication can be intentional or unintentional

You are always communicating messages to others, even when you aren't trying to (e.g., through body language, sighs, or silence).

4 Principles of Interpersonal Communication | Interpersonal communication is irreversible

Once a message is sent and received, you can never truly take it back or erase its impact, though you can apologize or clarify.

4 Principles of Interpersonal Communication | Interpersonal communication is dynamic

It is constantly in motion, ever-changing, and never static. Every interaction builds upon past interactions and alters future ones.

Three Types of Interpersonal Communication Goals | Self-Presentation Goals (Identity Goals)

Desires to present yourself in a specific way so that others perceive you according to your intentions (e.g., wanting to look competent, kind, or professional).

Three Types of Interpersonal Communication Goals | Instrumental Goals (Task Goals)

Practical objectives or tasks you want to achieve through a conversation (e.g., asking your professor for a deadline extension or borrowing a car).

Three Types of Interpersonal Communication Goals | Relationship Goals (Maintenance Goals)

Objectives focused on building, maintaining, or terminating bonds (e.g., initiating a friendship, repairing a conflict, or ending a dating relationship).

The Big 5 Personality Traits: (OCEAN) | What is each letter?

Openness: The degree to which someone is curious, imaginative, insightful, and eager for new experiences versus being conventional and routine-bound.

Conscientiousness: The degree to which someone is organized, purposeful, dependable, and disciplined versus disorganized and careless.

Extraversion: The degree of sociability, assertiveness, energy, and talkativeness versus introversion (reserve and quietness).

Agreeableness: The degree to which someone is trusting, cooperative, helpful, and empathetic versus competitive, uncooperative, and suspicious.

Neuroticism: The degree to which someone experiences emotional instability, anxiety, insecurity, and negative emotions versus emotional stability.

The Big 5 Personality Traits (OCEAN) | O

Openness: The degree to which someone is curious, imaginative, insightful, and eager for new experiences versus being conventional and routine-bound.

The Big 5 Personality Traits (OCEAN) | C

Conscientiousness: The degree to which someone is organized, purposeful, dependable, and disciplined versus disorganized and careless.

The Big 5 Personality Traits (OCEAN) | E

Extraversion: The degree of sociability, assertiveness, energy, and talkativeness versus introversion (reserve and quietness).

The Big 5 Personality Traits (OCEAN) | A

Agreeableness: The degree to which someone is trusting, cooperative, helpful, and empathetic versus competitive, uncooperative, and suspicious.

The Big 5 Personality Traits (OCEAN) | N

Neuroticism: The degree to which someone experiences emotional instability, anxiety, insecurity, and negative emotions versus emotional stability.

Three Layers of Social Penetration Theory | Peripheral Layer

Demographic characteristics, surface-level facts, age, hometown, college major, and basic outward preferences.

Three Layers of Social Penetration Theory | Intermediate Layer

Attitudes, opinions, political views, musical tastes, and casual personal preferences.

Three Layers of Social Penetration Theory | Central Layer

Core values, deepest fears, self-awareness, private vulnerabilities, core beliefs, and intimate secrets.

Breadth vs Depth of Self-Disclosure

Breadth: The number of different topics you are willing to discuss with someone.

Depth: How deeply or intimately you delve into those topics.

Face-Threatening Acts

Behaviors or communications that challenge, threaten, or undermine someone's public self-image (face).

Positive Face

The desire to be liked, respected, and validated by others.

Negative Face

The desire to be autonomous, independent, and free from imposition.

What does the term "face" mean in communication?

The positive social value or image that a person claims for themselves during an interaction.

Why can accomplishing a task sometimes conflict with protecting another person's face?

Because it may force them to disagree or refuse a request, which can threaten their face.

What are at least four actions that can threaten another person's negative face?

Orders and requests

Suggestions and advice

Reminders

Threats

Why can a "reminder" threaten another person's negative face? Why can even an offer or a compliment threaten a person's negative face?

Reminders: It imposes on their autonomy and threatens their desire to be left alone without interruption.

Compliments: Compliments and offers can create an unwanted obligation to respond or reciprocate, reducing their freedom.

What are at least four actions that can threaten another person's positive face?

Criticism

Contempt

Ridicule

Disapproval (or complaints)

Why do criticism, disagreement, or disapproval threaten positive face?

They question someone's knowledge, competence, authority, and judgment.

Give an example of an everyday statement that could threaten someone's positive face.

"Are you sure about that?"

What are two examples of actions that can threaten the speaker's own face?

Expressing/giving thanks, or accepting thanks.

Accepting and making unwanted offers.

Why might apologizing or accepting a compliment create a face-management problem?

They can create unwanted social obligations or conflict with the desire to maintain autonomy and be left alone.

How can losing physical or emotional control threaten a person's face?

Having to apologize forces you to acknowledge you did something wrong, which damages your ego and claimed identity.

According to the video, what role does politeness play when we perform a face-threatening act?

Politeness allows us to communicate without overtly acknowledging threats to the other person’s negative face.

Why is recognizing the "invisible layer" of face concerns an important communication skill?

Because it allows us to acknowledge both how we want others to view us and how others want us to view them.

The Process of Perception

Selecting: Focusing attention on specific sights, sounds, smells, or cues in your environment (making certain stimuli salient).

Organizing: Structuring the selected information in your mind chronologically or conceptually using schemata.

Interpreting: Assigning meaning to what you have selected and organized, often relying on attributions.

The Process of Perception | Selecting

Focusing attention on specific sights, sounds, smells, or cues in your environment (making certain stimuli salient).

The Process of Perception | Organizing

Structuring the selected information in your mind chronologically or conceptually using schemata.

The Process of Perception | Interpreting

Assigning meaning to what you have selected and organized, often relying on attributions.

Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty (Uncertainty Reduction Theory)

Passive Strategies

Observing a person from a distance, watching how they interact with others, or looking at their public social media footprint.

Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty (Uncertainty Reduction Theory)

Active Strategies

Asking third parties questions about the person, researching their background, or setting up environmental contexts to see how they react.

Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty (Uncertainty Reduction Theory)

Interactive Strategies

Engaging the person in direct, face-to-face or digital conversation, asking questions, and practicing self-disclosure to clear up ambiguities.

What are the four principles of interpersonal communication?

• Interpersonal communication conveys both content and relationship information:

  • Content information is the literal, semantic meaning of the words spoken.

  • Relationship information consists of signals regarding how each person views the relationship (e.g., signals of status, affinity, or power conveyed through tone or nonverbal cues).

• Interpersonal communication can be intentional or unintentional: You are always communicating messages to others, even when you aren't trying to (e.g., through body language, sighs, or silence).

• Interpersonal communication is irreversible: Once a message is sent and received, you can never truly take it back or erase its impact, though you can apologize or clarify.

• Interpersonal communication is dynamic: It is constantly in motion, ever-changing, and never static. Every interaction builds upon past interactions and alters future ones.

What are the three types of interpersonal communication goals?

• Self-Presentation Goals (Identity Goals): Desires to present yourself in a specific way so that others perceive you according to your intentions (e.g., wanting to look competent, kind, or professional).

• Instrumental Goals (Task Goals): Practical objectives or tasks you want to achieve through a conversation (e.g., asking your professor for a deadline extension or borrowing a car).

• Relationship Goals (Maintenance Goals): Objectives focused on building, maintaining, or terminating bonds (e.g., initiating a friendship, repairing a conflict, or ending a dating relationship).

What are the three layers of social penetration theory?

• Peripheral Layer: Demographic characteristics, surface-level facts, age, hometown, college major, and basic outward preferences.

• Intermediate Layer: Attitudes, opinions, political views, musical tastes, and casual personal preferences.

• Central Layer: Core values, deepest fears, self-awareness, private vulnerabilities, core beliefs, and intimate secrets.

Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty (Uncertainty Reduction Theory)

• Passive Strategies: Observing a person from a distance, watching how they interact with others, or looking at their public social media footprint.

• Active Strategies: Asking third parties questions about the person, researching their background, or setting up environmental contexts to see how they react.

• Interactive Strategies: Engaging the person in direct, face-to-face or digital conversation, asking questions, and practicing self-disclosure to clear up ambiguities.