Criminology Final

Humans have “unlimited appetites”

everyone would commit a crime if not controlled

Needs “social controls” for a functional society

behavior needs to be controlled

Control theories attempt to explain

why people DON’T commit a crime

Two control theories by Travis Hirschi:

social bonding theory

self-control theory

Travis Hirschi(1935-2017)

received a Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley

former President of ASC

Stockholm Prize Winner (2016)

Controversial figure

Social bonding theory

focused on bonds with social groups (peers, family, school)

more tightly bonded people are less likely to commit a crime

4 identified types of bonds (social bond theory)

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1. Attachment 
2. Commitment 
3. Involvement 
4. Belief

Attachment

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* Definition: 
* The affection that characterizes a relationship between people 
* Extent individual cares about the opinions of conventional (prosocial) others 
* Most important bond 
* More likely to refrain from crime if strongly bonded to others 
* Doesn't matter to whom one is attached 
* Attachment to the family is considered the most important 

Commitment

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* Definition:
* Investment an individual has in conventional society 
* Commitments are potentially jeopardized by delinquency 
* Higher levels of commitment result in less delinquency 

Involvement

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* Definition:
* Too busy with conventional activities to engage in delinquent acts 
* An example of “idle hands are the devil’s workshop”
* People with a lot of free time are most likely to engage in delinquency 

Belief

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* Definition:
* The endorsement of conventional rules, values, and beliefs 
* Don’t have to agree with all laws/rules
* Stronger belief in conventionality = less delinquency 

which bond has the strongest effect?

attachment

Self-control theory

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* Argued that a single trait predicted ALL behaviors 
* Not just limited to criminal behaviors
* Single trait that basically predicts everything 

characteristics of people with LSC:

Impulsive

Insensitive

Short-sighted

Non-verbal

Risk takers

Refer to physical activities over mental activities

Development of self-control

fully attributed to parenting practices

children who are not properly socialized will develop LSC

The ability to have self-control stems from parental socialization

3 steps of effective parental socialization (bare minimum):

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1. Effectively monitor child’s behavior 
2. Recognize deviant behavior 
3. Punish deviant behavior appropriately

Self-control becomes fixed between the ages

8-10

Levels of self-control will always become

stable over time

when testing 2 people, one person with a higher sense of self-control will always have

higher self-control than the other person

Empirical status of self-control theory:

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* Strong empirical support
* Found to predict a wide variety of criminal behaviors 
* Meta-analysis (Pratt & Cullen, 2000) found strong support 
* Levels of self-control linked with Victimization 
* Victims more likely to have LSC

Hirischi’s new definition of self-control in 2004

“The tendency to consider the full range of potential costs of a particular act which moves the focus from the long-term implications of the act to its broader and often contemporaneous implications”

Concerns with self-control theory

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1. Change in self-control and offending over time 
2. What about white-collar crime (WCC)?
3. Role of opportunity

Role of the brain

self-control theory ignores the brain development processes

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Perspectives in developmental psychology attempt to bridge the gap:

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* Dual systems model 
* Lifespan wisdom model

Dual system model

focuses on the impact of the brain development during adolescence and early adulthood

Dual system focuses on two separate neurobiological systems:

1. socioemotional system


1. cognitive control system

socioemotional system

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1. Linked to structures in the limbic and paralimbic systems
2. Fully developed during adolescence


1. Increased levels of sensation seeking

Cognitive control system

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1. Linked to structures in the frontal lobe like the prefrontal cortex
2. Not fully developed until early adulthood (25ish)


1. Increased levels of impulsivity during adolescence

Both systems, socioemotional and cognitive control systems, link to

the neurotransmitter dopamine

neurodevelopmental patterns result in an imbalance between the two systems during adolescence

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* Socioemotional system in overdrive = increased sensation seeking 
* Cognitive control systems are underdeveloped = less impulse control

as the cognitive control system continues to develop,

impulse control improves

Lifespan wisdom model has emerged as an augmentation

still focuses on impulsivity and sensation seeking (risk taking)

Different types of risk-taking:

Adaptive vs. Maladaptive risk-taking

Gene-environment correlation (*r*GE)

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* Process in which genes influence entry into specific environments
* Virtually every environment is at least partially influenced by genetic factors
* Includes parental socialization, peer interactions, & neighborhoods

Formation of peer groups is partially a function of *r*GEs

* Peers tend to possess similar talents, interests, & beliefs
* Choosing peers based on similar interests equates to choosing peers with similar genetic tendencies 

This is an example of an **active** ***r*****GE**

Peer interactions are influenced by genes

21% of all interactions

41% of all interactions with delinquent peers

Indicates that humans are NOT blank slates

delinquent youth more likely to seek out delinquent youth

All theories share common characteristics:

focus on the act of __offending__

Social reaction focuses on

how others __respond to the act__

an individual is a passive being

forced into criminal behavior by social forces

perspective is rooted in

critical criminology

power is maintained through

formal social controls

prevailing values reflect

the interests of those in power

crime is a tool used to

maintain power

Foundation in __symbolic interactionism__

the way that others view us, results in changes in our own behavior

key concept of labeling theory

looking glass self

Looking glass self

the reflection of us that becomes embedded into our personality of how others view us

responses from the criminal justice system may result in dramatic changes

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* Individuals may reevaluate his/her identity 
* Others may reevaluate the perspectives of the individual

primary deviance

a person commits a criminal/antisocial act

deviance is assigned to the act

deviance is not inherent, it is socially assigned

A person is labeled as “deviant”

by others

labeling process impacted by:

who gives the label

how the person reacts to the label

Probability of __secondary deviance__ increases

* Very difficult to change the label at this point 


* Groups in Power → social definitions → deviant acts → primary deviance → label applied → change in master status → secondary deviance

Central ideas of labeling theory oppose deterrence theory

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* Seen as directly competing theories
* Both can’t be right

research on labeling theory

people with contact with the CJS are more likely to commit more crime

Meta-analysis(Huizinga & Henry, 2008)

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* The majority of studies find that offending remains the same or increases after arrest 
* Very few (only 2) found decreases in offending after an arrest 

Newer meta-analysis (Petrich et al., 2021)

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* Incarceration does not impact recidivism
* N = 166 studies

Labeling theory

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* No reason to focus on primary deviance 
* CJS intervention causes negative changes
* Punishment increases subsequent criminal behavior (secondary deviance)

Deterrence theory

* Focus on primary deviance 
* CJS should increase the punishment 
* Punishment decreases the likelihood of criminal behavior 

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The main problem with research that examines labeling:

doesn’t take into account individual characteristics that influence primary AND secondary deviance

Examined the effects of genes on long-term offending(Barnes & Boutwell, 2012)

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* Examined offending over a 13-year timeframe 
* Adolescence into early adulthood
* Used a nationally representative sample of respondents

Results from Barnes & Boutwell (2021):

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* Genetic factors explain **97%** of the __stability__ in offending over time 
* Nonshared environment **(64%)** accounted for the majority of __change__
* A nonshared environment should have the biggest impact on offending stability if the labeling theory is correct

A case study: Nikko Jenkins

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* Served 10.5-year prison sentence (multiple violent offenses)
* Both outside and inside prison 
* Released 7/30/2013
* Murdered 4 people over 10 days
* Brutal murders– multiple gunshots
* Found guilty of 4 counts of murder
* Sentence pending

Is Moffitt’s theory a “biosocial theory”?

yes

who formalized biosocial theories?

Wright & Cullen (2012)

what does Moffitt’s theory include?

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* Directly includes biological and  environmental influences
* Development of LCP offending patterns
* Evolutionary explanation of AL offending patterns
* Explanation of desistance for AL offenders 

do genes influence classification into each group in Moffitt’s theory?

yes, each group significantly influenced by genetic factors

results from Barnes at al., (2011)

* **LCP:**  A = 70%; C = 0%; E = 30%
* **AL:**  A = 35%; C = 0%; E = 65%
* Abstainers:  A = 56%; C = 0%; E = 44%

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genes have greater influence on LCP offending and abstaining

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* Patterns that fall furthest from the norm of AL offending 
* Genes may have greater impact on less common patterns

does selection influence desistance?

yes, some individual traits influence getting married or gaining meaningful employment also influence desistance

do genes influence desistance?

yes, results from Barnes & Beaver (2012):

 A=49%; C=0%; E=51%

is marriage associated with desistance after controlling for genetic influences?

yes

The effect remains, but is reduced dramatically

▪ 60% reduction (Barnes & Beaver, 2011)

primary characteristics of adolescence-limited criminology

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* Focuses on sociological causes of delinquency 
* Focuses on adolescent delinquency 
* Ignores the little we know about crime in favor of new explanations

Life-course criminology as an alternative:

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* Focus on the development of antisocial behavior across the life course
* Zooms out from adolescence to get a bigger picture
* With direct attention toward stability and change in behavior 
* Recognizes that cause of delinquency CHANGE over time 
* Results in changes in behavior over time
* Focus on explaining the little we know about crime 
* E.g., the age-crime curve

2 main life course perspectives:

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1. Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy 
2. Sampsons & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control

How many times has Moffitt’s article been cited?

15,000 times

what happened when Moffitt submitted her article to Criminology

rejected

Where did Moffitt’s article get posted?

eventually published in a trop psychology journal (psychological bulletin)

what did Moffitt’s article identify?

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1. Life-course persistent (LCP) offenders
2. Adolescence-limited offenders (AL) 
3. Abstainers

What factors did Moffitt use to identify each group?

age of antisocial behavior onset

the duration of the offending

LCP offenders

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* Display antisocial behavior across the entire life course
* Early onset and long duration
* Starts in childhood, continues in adolescence and adulthood

Who does LCP offender compromise?

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* Compromise between 5-10% of the overall population 
* Small number of people commit the majority of all crimes

True LCPs are quite rare:

habitual, serious offenders

most likely psychopaths

Behavior the result of biological & environmental factors:

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* Possess __**neuropsychological deficits**__
* Subtle neurological problems 
* Manifest as impaired verbal ability, executive functioning, and cognitive delays 
* Experience high-risk development environments 
* Unstable, harsh, or neglectful environments
* Parents may not be equipped to handle difficult behavior

AL offenders

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* Delinquency is confined to adolescence 
* Onset in adolescence and short duration 
* Prosocial childhood, delinquency in adolescence, desist in early adulthood 

how many AL offenders are compromised?

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* Up to 90% of all youth 
* AL offending is considered the norm
* Failing to engage in delinquency in adolescence is considered “maladaptive”

What kind of crimes do AL offenders tend to commit

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* Tend to commit a nonviolent crime 
* E.g., property crime, vandalism, drinking, drug use, etc.

delinquency is the result of a “maturity gap”

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* Disconnect between social and biological maturity
* Physical maturity does not match up with granted social privileges (e.g., sexual behavior, alcohol use, smoking, etc.)

seek to alleviate strain caused by the maturity gap

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* Engage in behaviors associated with adulthood
* Mimic behaviors of LCP offenders in their peer group 

desist when the maturity gap closes in early adulthood

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* Granted social privileges they seek
* No neuropsychological deficits to overcome

“every curfew broken, car stolen, joint smoked, or baby conceived is a statement of independence…”

Capsi & Moffitt (1995), p. 500

Abstainers

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* Refrain from delinquent behavior across the entire life course 
* No onset or duration 

how many abstainers are compromised?

5-10% of the overall population

quite rare and typically do not undergo normal development in adolescence

What are the reasons for abstaining?

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1. Structural barriers prevent learning delinquent behaviors 
2. Characteristics peers find unappealing 
3. Access to adult roles in Adolescence 


1. Escape the maturity gap

The empirical status of Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy:

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* Most studies have found evidence of the three groups identified in Moffitt’s theory 
* Some studies have identified additional groups (e.g., childhood-limited offenders, etc)

Who proposed life-course theory?

Robert Sampson & John Laub in 1993

How did Sampson and Laub discover the life-course theory

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* Spurred by the discovery of Glueck’s data from the 1930s
* 1000 boys (500 delinquent & 500 nondelinquents) from Boston 
* Sampson and Laub tracked down surviving members of the sample (approx. 70 years old)
* Performed in-depth interviews

When is crime most likely to occur in the life-course theory?

when the bonds are weak

Structural influences operate through informal control (Life-course)

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* Controls from family/school have the greatest impact 
* E.g., likely impact parenting practices

Stability in influences operate through informal control (life-course)

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* Due to negative consequences resulting from behavior
* Modification of labeling theory