Exam 3 Study Guide: Categorical Inequalities in Sociology

Individual Attributes Approach

Inequality comes from differences in personal traits like education, intelligence, age, gender, or race.

Key Idea of Individual Attributes Approach

People succeed/fail based on their own skills, effort, and traits.

Class Example of Individual Attributes Approach

College education gives you better job prospects and income.

Race/Gender Example of Individual Attributes Approach

Racial/gender income gaps are often blamed on differences in education or work experience.

Critique of Individual Attributes Approach

Ignores structural inequality. Assumes a level playing field.

Opportunity Hoarding Approach

Inequality comes from groups excluding others from valuable resources (jobs, schools, neighborhoods).

Key Idea of Opportunity Hoarding Approach

Advantages are kept within certain groups by locking others out.

Class Example of Opportunity Hoarding Approach

College degrees exclude people without them from high-quality jobs.

Race Example of Opportunity Hoarding Approach

Redlining and housing discrimination excluded Black families from homeownership and wealth-building.

Gender Example of Opportunity Hoarding Approach

High-paying jobs dominated by men; women are often excluded from promotions.

Critique of Opportunity Hoarding Approach

Explains exclusion well but doesn't show how the rich actively profit from the poor.

Domination and Exploitation Approach

Inequality comes from power differences—some groups control others and profit from their labor.

Domination

Control over people's actions.

Exploitation

Gaining from others' labor while giving them little in return.

Class Example of Domination and Exploitation Approach

Capitalists exploit workers by underpaying them; profits go to owners/CEOs.

Race Example of Domination and Exploitation Approach

Slumlords, payday lenders, and low-wage employers profit off poor communities of color.

Gender Example of Domination and Exploitation Approach

Women do low-paid or unpaid caregiving work; employers and society benefit.

Critique of Domination and Exploitation Approach

Strongest on power and inequality, but less about culture or identity.

Class Definition by Sociologists

A hierarchical social position where members of the same class share similar life chances in their material conditions.

Three Dimensions of Class

1. Economic - How much wealth and income someone has (e.g., salary, assets, debts). 2. Social Status - The amount of prestige, cultural respect, and honor a person holds (e.g., doctor vs. janitor). 3. Political Power - The ability to influence decisions or control others, often through access to institutions (e.g., CEOs, politicians).

Post-WWII Economic Patterns

Income growth was strong and widely shared; even the poorest 20% of households experienced real income growth.

Middle Class Expansion Post-WWII

Middle class expanded, and social mobility was high (especially for white families).

Current Era Economic Patterns

Economic growth has slowed; income gains went mostly to the top 5%, especially the top 1%.

Big Takeaway from Mechanisms of Inequality

All three mechanisms explain inequality, but they do so in different ways: Attributes focus on individuals, Hoarding focuses on group boundaries, Exploitation focuses on power and control.

Wage stagnation

A situation where wages do not increase over time, affecting the middle and working class.

Social mobility

The ability for individuals or families to move up or down the social ladder, which has decreased for the poor.

Glass ceilings

Invisible barriers that limit upward mobility for the poor.

Glass floors

Protections that prevent the wealthy from falling down the class ladder.

Golden Era

The period from 1947 to 1979 when all income groups experienced steady growth.

Current Era

The period from 1979 to present where only the richest households saw major income growth, while others remained flat or declined.

Wealth Distribution in 2019

Top 10% of households own 71% of all wealth, while the bottom 90% share the remaining 29%.

Top 1% wealth share

The top 1% of households alone hold 37% of all wealth.

Class

Not just about money; it encompasses status, power, and opportunity.

Inequality since the 1980s

A period marked by growing inequality and declining social mobility, particularly for low-income and marginalized groups.

Golden Era Capitalism

Characterized by a strong economy, growing middle class, high union membership, and widespread upward mobility.

Current Era Capitalism

Features deindustrialization, wage stagnation, and a focus on profit maximization for shareholders.

Deindustrialization

The process where manufacturing jobs moved overseas, contributing to economic changes since the 1970s.

Managerial capitalism

A system where executives and shareholders retain more profits, with less shared with workers.

Gig economy

An economy characterized by part-time, contract, and temporary jobs that often lack benefits.

Financialization

An economic focus on investments and Wall Street rather than on actual goods and services.

Privatization

The trend of public goods being increasingly run for profit.

Varieties of capitalism

The concept that capitalism can be structured differently based on laws, norms, and institutions.

Income inequality

A situation where the top 1% holds a massive share of wealth and income, while the bottom 90% owns far less.

Wage stagnation since the 1970s

A phenomenon where productivity increased but wages did not keep up for the middle and working class.

Wealth inequality

A condition where wealth inequality is greater than income inequality, with the richest households controlling a disproportionate share of national wealth.

Poverty rates

Persistent poverty rates, especially among children, single mothers, and people of color.

Poverty in the U.S.

U.S. has higher poverty than most wealthy countries, despite being one of the richest nations.

Economic Gains Distribution

Poverty is not decreasing much despite rising national wealth, suggesting economic gains are not distributed fairly.

Social Mobility

Social mobility is especially low for people of color and those without college degrees.

Glass Floors and Ceilings

People born into wealth stay wealthy, while poor families struggle to move up, even across generations.

Opportunity in the U.S.

If the U.S. is supposed to be a land of opportunity, low social mobility undermines that claim.

Intersection of Class, Race, and Gender

Fairness breaks down when money and identity intersect, reinforcing inequality and blocking opportunity.

Wealth Disparity by Race

Black and Latinx families have far less wealth than white families, even at the same income levels.

Gender Wage Gap

Women earn less than men on average, especially women of color.

Class Privilege

Those born into wealth are able to hoard opportunities like better schools and job networks.

Poverty Rates Since 1970

In 1970, about 12.6% of the U.S. population was in poverty; by 2022, it was about 11.5%.

Economic Growth vs. Poverty

Despite massive economic growth and technological progress, poverty has remained stable.

Welfare State Claims

Claim: Poverty persists because government welfare programs were cut; Dr. P's response: False—spending has actually increased.

Antipoverty Spending Increase

Between 1980-2018, federal antipoverty spending rose 130%, even without counting Medicaid.

Government Fund Misallocation

Claim: The government spends money on the poor, but it's inefficient; Dr. P's response: Partly true, but not the full picture.

Funds Reaching the Poor

Only $0.22 of each dollar in 2020 reached the poor.

Mechanism 1: Exploitation and Domination

Exploitation = getting economic benefits from the labor or situation of others; Domination = controlling others' activities.

Exploitation Examples

Landlords exploit low-income renters with high rents; check-cashing stores charge massive fees to those excluded from banks.

Mechanism 2: Opportunity Hoarding

Advantaged groups exclude others from key resources like education, housing, and jobs.

Education and Job Exclusion

College degrees are required for many good jobs, excluding those who can't afford college.

Neighborhood Segregation

Neighborhood segregation leads to unequal schools, healthcare, and safety.

Deserts in Communities

Food deserts and healthcare deserts are more common in low-income and minority communities.

Poverty Production Mechanism

Poverty persists because groups with power keep others out—not because of individual choices or traits.

Racism and Colorism Causes

Define and explain the causes of racism and colorism.

Racism

Unequal outcomes between racial and ethnic groups, often rooted in systemic structures, not just individual prejudice.

Colorism

Unequal treatment or outcomes based on skin tone, usually privileging lighter skin over darker skin within the same racial group.

Key Causes of Racism and Colorism

Sociologists argue these are structural problems, not just individual attitudes.

Social Structures

Institutions (schools, housing, law, etc.) produce and reinforce racial inequalities over time.

Power and Benefit

Powerful groups benefit from racism and colorism and maintain these systems to preserve their own advantages.

Intergenerational Inequality

Inequities in wealth, education, and opportunity accumulate over time and across generations.

Racial Residential Segregation

Race is socially constructed—not based on biology, but on laws and social systems that define and enforce categories of people.

Redlining (1930s-1960s)

Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and banks denied mortgages to Black families based on 'risk' maps—Black neighborhoods were marked in red and labeled 'hazardous.'

GI Bill (Post-WWII)

Meant to help veterans buy homes—but Black vets were often excluded from accessing the benefits due to local and federal discrimination.

Levittown and Suburbanization

Suburbs were built for whites only. Deeds literally banned Black families from buying homes there. This created white-only wealth-building communities.

Homeownership = Wealth

Housing is the #1 way families build wealth. Since Black families were excluded from homeownership, they couldn't pass wealth down like white families could.

Wealth Gap Today

In 2019: White families hold significantly more wealth than Black families. The racial wealth gap is larger today than in the 1980s.

White Flight

When Black families move into white neighborhoods, white families often move out, lowering property values and draining resources (schools, libraries, police).

Disinvestment in Black Neighborhoods

Less investment in schools, health care, parks, and infrastructure → decline in services and rising poverty.

Generational Impact

Children born into segregated neighborhoods face limited opportunities → cycles of poverty and racial inequality.

7 Characteristics of Social Structure

The framework that defines how social structures operate and affect individuals.

Social Structure Exists Outside of the Individual

Key Idea: Social structure is bigger than the individual—it's made up of institutions (like schools, the economy, laws, etc.) and social norms that shape people's lives.

Example of Social Structure Impact

A Black child born into a family with lower wealth has no control over that situation, yet they experience the impact of lower wealth, limited access to better schools, and poorer housing.

Additive Nature

Over time, these disadvantages add up across the individual's life cycle.

Social Structure Takes Multiple Forms

Key Idea: Social structures are not only about individual relationships; they also involve legal systems, cultural norms, and institutional practices.

Example of Historical Redlining

Historical redlining policies (FHA and banks denying loans to Black families) created residential segregation.

Impact of Redlining

Over time, this led to poorer public services in Black neighborhoods, as property taxes (which fund schools, hospitals, etc.) were lower.

Additive Nature

This multi-faceted exclusion (legal, institutional, cultural) created compounding disadvantages that continue to affect generations of Black families.

Social Structure is Coercive

Social structures restrict people's choices and behavior, often without them even realizing it.

Example of Coercive Social Structure

Low-income families in disadvantaged areas are often coerced into paying high rents, using payday loans, or buying from predatory businesses because they have limited access to resources (e.g., access to good schools, hospitals, or jobs).

Additive Nature of Coercive Structures

Over time, being stuck in a cycle of low wages or high-interest debt limits opportunities for upward mobility, making it harder to break free from poverty.

Social Structure Constrains and Enables Agency

Social structures both limit and enable people's actions.

Example of Education and Agency

A person from a wealthy background can afford private schools, tutoring, and networking opportunities, enabling them to get into top universities and secure well-paying jobs.

Disadvantaged Education Example

A person from a lower-income background may have access to underfunded public schools, limiting their ability to move up the social ladder.

Additive Nature of Education

The wealthy person's advantages stack up (access to elite education → elite networks → high-income jobs), while the disadvantaged person's disadvantages compound (underfunded education → fewer job opportunities → low wages).

Social Structure is Unequally Beneficial

Social structures are not equally beneficial to everyone. They create unequal access to resources.