AP Biology Unit 1

glucose, fructose, sucrose, starch, glycogen, cellulose, monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Carbohydrate Examples

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

Disaccharide

A single sugar molecule such as glucose or fructose, the simplest type of sugar.

Monosaccharide

Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides

Polysaccharide

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

Glycosidic Linkage

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

Starch

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms

Cellulose

fatty acids, fats, saturated fats, unsaturated fats, steroids, phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides

Lipid Examples

A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms.

Unsaturated Fat

A lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms

Saturated Fat

lipid molecule with four fused carbon rings

Steroid

a lipid that contains phosphorus and that is a structural component in cell membranes

Phospholipid

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

Nucleotide

DNA, RNA, (ATP and ADP are modified nucleic acids)

Nucleic Acid Examples

amino acids, primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structures, collagen, hemoglobin, enzymes

Protein Examples

a lipid made of three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule

Triglyceride

glutamine, proline, cysteine, lycine, ...

Amino Acid Examples

sequence of amino acids

Primary Structure of a Protein

protein structure is formed by folding and twisting of amino acid chain

Secondary Structure of a Protein

protein structure is formed when the twists and folds of the secondary structure fold again to from a larger 3D structure

Tertiary Structure of a Protein

protein structure is a protein consisting of more than one folded amino acid chain

Quaternary Structure of a Protein

The covalent bond between two sulfur atoms (-S—S-) linking two molecules or remote parts of the same molecule.

Disulfide Bridge

Very weak bonds; occurs when a hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to the electrostatic atom in another molecule

Hydrogen Bonds

kind of macromolecule that stores, transfers, and expresses genetic information

nucleic acid

elements that make up a nucleic acid

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Nitrogen (CHOPN)

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

nucleotide

term used to describe the arrangement of a DNA strand

double helix

ribonucleic acid; a polymer of nucleotides that transfers genetic information

RNA

the sugar in RNA is ribose; Uracil bonds with Adenine; RNA is single-stranded

how RNA differs from DNA

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur (CHONS)

elements that make up a protein

building block (monomer) of proteins, composed of an amino group and a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and an R-group

amino acid

a carboxyl group, an amino group, a central Carbon, a Hydrogen, and an R-group

structure of an amino acid

covalent bond formed between amino acids

peptide bond

a long line of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds

polypeptide chain

stands for the rest of the compound, different for each kind of amino acid, giving the amino acid its properties

R-group

hydrophilic or hydrophobic, polar or nonpolar, acidic or basic

properties the R-group may give the amino acid

primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure

four levels of a proteins structure

move together to the interior of a protein, away from water

hydrophobic R-groups

macromolecule made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CHO) that is mostly nonpolar not soluble in water;

lipids

elements that makeup both Carbohydrates and Lipids

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (CHO)

building block of a lipid made of a hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group

fatty acid

a carbon alcohol that is hydrophilic

glycerol

long-term energy storage, insulation, part of the cell membrane, chemical messenger, waterproofing

functions of lipids

lipid made of two hydrocarbon chains, glycerol, and a phosphate group

phospholipid

another name for the hydrocarbon chain in a phospholipid

hydrophobic tail

another name for the phosphate group in a phospholipid

hydrophobic head

suffix carbohydrates usually end in (gluc-ose, fruct-ose)

-ose

covalent bond that forms between a monosaccharide and another molecule (like another monosaccharide)

glycosidic linkage

large organic molecules

macromolecules

number of covalent bonds carbon can form with other elements

four

carbon and hydrogen atoms that are covalently bonded that make them stable and nonpolar

hydrocarbons

not soluable in water

nonpolar

soluable in water

polar

molecules that consist of many repeated monomers

polymer

molecules that consist of a single unit

monomer

reaction that links monomer molecules together, releasing a molecule of water for each bond formed

dehydration synthesis

the process of adding a water molecule to break a polymer into monomers

hydrolysis

parts of organic molecules that are involved in chemical reactions

functional groups

slightly negative

charge of the oxygen atom in a water molecule

slightly positive

charge of the hydrogen atoms in a water molecule

Term for substances that dissolve in water.

hydrophilic

Term for substances that do not dissolve in water.

hydrophobic

property of water in which water changes temperature very slowly with changes in heat due to hydrogen bonding

high specific heat

water carries the heat it absorbs away in sweat due to its high specific heat

evaporative cooling

less dense as a solid; hydrogen bonds form crystalline structure that keeps the water molecules separate

the reason ice floats in liquid water

the attraction of like substances; water molecules are attracted to other water molecules; this is due to the hydrogen bonding between water molecules

cohesion

the attraction of unlike molecules; water molecules are attracted to other polar surfaces

adhesion

Smallest form of an element that still displays its particular properties; consisting of a positively charged nucleus and a negatively charged electron cloud.

atom

Atomic particles with a positive charge (+) found in the nucleus of an atom.

protons

Atomic particles with a neutral (o) charge found in the nucleus of an atom.

neutrons

Atomic particles with a negative charge (-) found outside the nucleus of an atom.

electrons

atom becomes charged when it gains or loses an electron

ion

attraction between two atoms by transferring or sharing electrons to attain a stable electron configuration

chemical bond

Bond that forms when electrons are shared equally.

nonpolar covalent bond

Bond that forms when electrons between atoms are shared.

covalent bond

Bond that forms when electrons are shared unequally; like that between the oxygen atom and hydrogen atoms in a water molecule

polar covalent bond

Unequal sharing of electrons creating partial charges; polar bonds or molecules result. An uneven distribution of charge usually makes a molecule polar.

Polarity

Attraction between partial positive and partial negative charges; in water, hydrogen bonding occurs between the partially positive hydrogen of one molecule and the partially negative oxygen of another.

Hydrogen Bonding

Water sticking to water due to hydrogen bonding.

Cohesion

A property caused by cohesion and hydrogen bonding between water molecules at the surface.

Surface Tension

Water sticking to other polar surfaces.

Adhesion

The movement of water through narrow spaces, such as through plant xylem, caused by adhesion and cohesion.

Capillary Action

Water requires a large amount of energy to change its temperature because hydrogen bonds absorb heat.

High Specific Heat

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1°C.

Specific Heat

The large amount of energy required to change water from a liquid to a gas because hydrogen bonds must be broken.

High Heat of Vaporization

Water can dissolve many polar and ionic substances because water is highly polar; like dissolves like.

Universal Solvent

A bond formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, creating oppositely charged ions.

Ionic Bond

Usually occur between metals and nonmetals; examples include NaCl and CaCl₂.

Ionic Bonds

A bond formed when two atoms share electrons.

Covalent Bond

Usually occur between nonmetals; examples include CH₄, C₆H₁₂O₆, and O₂.

Covalent Bonds

Ice is less dense than liquid water because hydrogen bonds hold water molecules farther apart in a crystal structure.

Solid Water Density

Temperature affects whether a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.

Temperature and State of Matter

A measure of how far individual values tend to be from the mean.

Standard Deviation

Approximately 68% of data falls within 1 standard deviation, 95% within 2 standard deviations, and 99.7% within 3 standard deviations of the mean in a normal distribution.

68-95-99.7 Rule

A measure of how much the sample mean is expected to vary from the true population mean; smaller standard error means greater confidence in the sample mean.

Standard Error

Error bars that represent standard error and show the estimated variability of the sample mean.

Standard Error Bars

Overlapping error bars do not automatically mean there is no significant difference; a statistical test is needed to determine significance.

Overlapping Error Bars

A small molecule that can bond with other similar molecules to form a polymer.

Monomer

A large molecule made of repeating smaller units called monomers.

Polymer

A functional group consisting of an oxygen and hydrogen bonded together; written as -OH.

Hydroxyl Group