Ap Psych Unit 0 Vocab Terms

Perspectives

a specific lens or conceptual framework used to explain human thought, emotion, and behavior

• biological

• behavioral

• cognitive

• humanistic

• evolutionary

• psychodynamic

• sociocultural

Evolutionary Perspective

A theoretical approach that explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success.

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological approach that explains mental disorders as resulting from maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or emotions.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and learning through conditioning.

Humanistic Perspective

A psychological approach that explains mental disorders as resulting from lack of social support and inability to fulfill one's potential.

Biological Perspective

A psychological approach that explains mental disorders as resulting from physiological or genetic issues.

Independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Eclecticism

A therapeutic method that combines techniques and theories from multiple psychological perspectives when diagnosing and treating clients.

Psychology

• Behavior: Any observable and measurable action or reaction a person or animal does (e.g., blinking, running, speaking).

• Mental Processes: Internal, subjective experiences inferred from behavior (e.g., thoughts, beliefs, dreams, feelings)

Cognitive Bias

Systematic errors in thinking that affect judgment and decision-making.

Cultural Norm

the shared, mostly unwritten rules and expectations that guide the acceptable behavior of people within a specific culture or society

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information in ways that confirm existing beliefs or attitudes.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known a

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the accuracy of their beliefs and judgments.

Experimental Research

a research method where a scientist manipulates one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable under controlled conditions, with the primary goal of establishing a cause-and-effect relationship

Non Experimental Research

a method that observes and analyzes data as it naturally occurs without manipulating an independent variable or randomly assigning participants

Random assignment

the use of chance procedures to place participants into experimental or control groups, ensuring that every person has an equal probability of being assigned to any condition

Case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Naturalistic observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Falsifiable hypothesis

a testable prediction that can be proven wrong by observational data or an experiment

Operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Also known as operationalization.)

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Dependent Variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

Data representation

how research findings and numerical or qualitative information are organized, summarized, and displayed visually using tables, graphs, charts, and figures

Measures of central tendency

statistical summary values that identify the center point or typical score within a data set, researchers use these values to condense large amounts of behavioral data into a single, representative number.

• mean

• median

• mode

mean

a measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a dataset and dividing by the total number of scores. it represents the mathematical center or average of a data set.

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

mode

a measure of central tendency defined as the most frequently occurring score or value in a data set

Measures of variation

descriptive statistics that tell you how spread out or diverse the scores are in a data set

• range

• standard deviation

• variance

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.

Normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped graph that shows how data or psychological traits are spread out, with most scores clustered near the average and fewer scores at the extreme ends

Positive skew

a set of data where most scores pile up on the lower left side and a long tail extends toward the higher right side. In a positive skew, the extreme high scores pull the mathematical average up. This creates a specific order from lowest to highest:

• Mode is the lowest point (the peak value).

• Median (the middle score) is higher than the mode.

• Mean (the average) is the highest value because the outliers pull it to the right.

• Rule to remember: Mode < Median < Mean

Negative skew

a data distribution where most scores cluster at the higher end, and a long tail extends toward the lower, negative side.

• High Scores Cluster: Most data points or people score high.

• Mean is Pulled Down: Extreme low scores pull the mean (average) to the left, making it lower than the median.

• Order of Measures: Mean < Median < Mode

Bimodal distribution

a frequency distribution or graph that features two distinct peaks (modes) where scores cluster, separated by a lower dip or valley in the middle. The mean (average) often falls in the valley between the two peaks, meaning a single measure of central tendency may not accurately represent either subgroup in the data

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)

Sample

a smaller group of participants chosen from a larger population to take part in a research study

Representative sample

a small group of participants that accurately reflects the demographics, traits, and proportions of a larger target population

Random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Convenience sampling

a group of participants chosen because they are easy to reach and available, rather than through random selection

Sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Generalization

the tendency for a conditioned response to be triggered by new stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus

• If a child is bitten by a dog, they might feel fear around all dogs, even friendly ones. In the famous Little Albert experiment, a baby conditioned to fear a white rat also cried when shown white rabbits and fluffy coats

Experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Placebo

An inactive substance or fake procedure given to a control group to mimic an actual treatment without providing any real therapeutic effect.

Placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Single-blind study

an experimental setup where the participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group, but the researchers do

• Stops Participant Bias: Keeps people from changing their behavior based on what they expect.

• Blocks Placebo Effects: Stops people from feeling better or worse just because they think they got real treatment.

• Improves Accuracy: Makes data cleaner and more trustworthy for cause-and-effect conclusions

Experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs.

Social desirability bias

bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.

Qualitative measure

a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers.

Quantitative measure

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.

Structured interview

an interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales.

Likert scale

a numerical rating scale used in Verywell Mind survey research to measure people's attitudes, opinions, or values.

• Format: Gives a statement and asks people to show how much they agree or disagree.

• Data Type: Creates ordinal data (ranked answers where exact gaps between numbers are not equal). Researchers use the median or mode to analyze the results

Peer review

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.

Double-blind study

an experimental design in which both the participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) of who has received the active treatment versus a placebo or control condition. It is considered a research "gold standard" because it removes human bias from both sides of the experiment, ensuring more valid and objective results.

Positive correlation

a relationship between two variables where both variables move in the same direction—as one variable increases, the other variable also increases, or as one decreases, the other decreases

Negative correlation

a relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other variable, moving in opposite directions

Illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00). (small to large correlation)

Third Variable

occurs when an unmeasured third factor—also called a confounding variable—influences both variables in a study, making them appear directly connected when no actual causal relationship exists between them

survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Wording effects

the way that the specific choice, phrasing, or order of words in a survey or question can unintentionally influence how people respond, leading to biased or inaccurate results

Self report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.

Effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

Institutional review board

an ethics committee at a university or research organization that reviews and approves studies involving human participants before the research starts

Informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Informed assent

Informed assent is the agreement given by an individual who lacks the legal capacity to give formal consent—such as a minor—to participate in a research study after the procedures are explained in an age-appropriate way

Protect from harm

an ethical guideline stating that researchers must ensure participants are safe from physical, mental, emotional, or physiological pain and distress during a study

confidential/anonymity

researchers do not collect any personal identifying information (like names, addresses, or IP addresses) from participants, making it impossible to match data to a specific person

deception

the practice of intentionally misleading research participants about the true purpose, nature, or procedures of a study. If people know what a study is testing, they might change their behavior to match what they think the researcher wants.

To be ethical, a study using deception must meet these strict conditions:

• Minimal risk: The study cannot place participants at significant physical or mental risk.

• Necessity: The research question cannot be answered using a non-deceptive method.

• Mandatory debriefing: Researchers must fully explain the true purpose of the study and address any confusion or stress as soon as the experiment ends.

confederates

an actor or research assistant who secretly works for the experimenter while pretending to be a normal participant

debriefing

the required ethical process where researchers explain a study's true purpose, reveal any deception used, and address participant stress or questions after the experiment ends