history - rise of mussolini essay plans

1. How far did fascist ideology change 1919-21?

The shift from Left to Right was considerable and this can best be illustrated by comparing the Fascist party programmes of 1919 and 1921. First of all explain how the Fascists did badly in the elections of 1919, forcing Mussolini to rethink his strategy - he needed to appeal to the conservative elite but also retain some vagueness so as not to alienate radical and working class voters – and this accounts for the PNF’s success in the 1921 elections. Then discuss ideological differences and similarities:

(1) Politics – The abolition of the monarchy and establishment of a Republic was replaced by an unspecified political structure; abolition of national service replaced by compulsory national service 

(2) Social – anti-clericalism was replaced by sympathy for the Church; abolition of noble titles dropped. 

(3) Economic – nationalisation was replaced by privatisation; confiscation of war profits and inherited wealth replaced by ‘taxation proportional to income’; restrictions on banking dropped; an 8 hour day remained the same but to include ‘exceptions for agricultural and industrial requirements’; ‘direct participation of workers in management’ was in theory similar to ‘Corporations to express national solidarity’.

(4) Foreign – Italy to seize Fiume and Dalmatia was extended to include ‘a major role for Italy in the Mediterranean’. The glorification of violence, emphasis on nationalism and hostility shown towards Socialists remained consistent themes. 

Consider organising your answer into (1) change and (2) continuity. Your judgement is that ideology changed to a large extent. 

1. How far does Italy's mutilated victory explain growing support for the Italian Fascist party in the years 1919-22?

The ‘mutilated victory’ was a reason for the growth of Fascism but fear of socialism was more important.

(1) Nationalists resented the ‘mutilated victory’ in which the Versailles settlement did not sufficiently reward Italy despite her sacrifices and the promises made at the treaty of London. But Italy did make some gains and most Italians were not that interested in problems that did not directly concern them.

(2) Fear of socialism, however, threatened the very existence of the property-owning classes, particularly when they observed events in Russia. The rise of the PSI and trade union activity in the ‘Biennio Rosso’ was very alarming even if the danger of actual revolution was remote. In addition 

(3) Parliamentary deadlock, partly due to proportional representation, led to weak coalition governments and the loss of confidence in Liberalism. 

Also (4) Mussolini’s skill was in filling the political void and appealing to a cross-section of society with the promise of restoring order. His pragmatic shift from left to right wing politics was vital and this links back to fear of socialism. 

Consider organising into (1) mutilated victory was quite important and (2) other factors mattered more. Your judgement is that the ‘mutilated victory’ was a limited reason.  

 

1. How far was Mussolini's appointment to prime minister in 1922 due to his political skill?

It can be argued that fear of Socialism was the MIF but the question specifically focuses on Mussolini becoming PM and this places greater emphasis on the events of October 1922 when his political skill was particularly vital. (1) His political skill included his gift for propaganda, his flexible ideology and his ability to manipulate his rivals, both from within his own Fascist ranks as well as Liberal politicians and members of the elite. (2) Fear of socialism was a key component even if by 1922 much of the actual threat had receded - perception is what mattered when the elite regarded Mussolini as the ‘safe option’.  The attitude of the King was particularly important too because it was ultimately his decision to cancel martial law and invite Mussolini to form a government. (3) Proportional representation led to parliamentary deadlock when the PPI and PSI, who achieved over 50% of the vote, refused to join together in a coalition. It also resulted in the Liberals being discredited after a succession of weak and short-lived prime ministers. (4) The impact of WW1 and the Versailles settlement also contributed to the instability of Italy, creating the conditions for an extremist like Mussolini to flourish. Consider organising into (1) political skill was very important and (2) other factors were vital too. Your judgement is that his political skill mattered to a large extent. 

1. Italian democracy collapsed in 1922 because the Conservative elites feared socialism more than they feared Fascism.' How far do you agree with this view?

Socialism agree – Biennio Rosso, General strike day Aug 1922, socialist propaganda (Avanti!), socialist beliefs e.g redistribution of wealth, anti-clerical, bolshevism made threat seem worse, 1919 election -PSI 31% (largest majority), peasants seizing land (push to Fascism), post-war effects e.g inflation + stagnant wages = discontent 

Socialism disagree – italy wasn’t on brink of revolution (and socialists would only wait for complete fall of society to intervene), more focused on winning in parliament than enacting actual changes on streets…, General strike only lasted a day, by 1922, the socialist movement was very fragmented due to PCI and PSU forming, no strong leader 

Fascism – March on Rome, random acts of violence in streets, Black shirts & glorification of violence, Fascist strengths = Mussolini skills (can’t be manipulated even though they believe that),

Fascism disagree – dual policy, 1921 new PNF programme aligned better with their views,Some elites approved the fascists- defeat socialism. Defend their privilege. All violence was directed against the socialists not the elites or army. 400 policemen blocked their path they did nothing. Good relationship with Giolitti + Pope Pius XI. Only had 7% of vote- so was small. Seen as the safe option.

1. How significant were the elections of 1919 in weakening the Liberal State in the period 1918-22?

elections 1919-22, splintering, fragmentation and paralysis.  -Proportional representation. 1919 fascists had no votes and socialists become largest party but still far from winning power. Universal suffrage- everyone votes. No clear majority so no clear way to stop Biennio Rosso. Rise of the PSI, PPI creation. Collapse of the Liberal vote after them always winning Majority. No gov wins majority, no laws passed so gov becomes weak. Liberal state could not deal with Biennio rosso.

-1921 election, Fascists got 7% of votes and 35 seats. Compared to zero in 1919. Socialists growing. Still multiple fragmented parties.

-Response to Biennio Rosso. Outside of parliament. Did not solve it and left it to the Fascist to deal with. More support for fascists and makes gov look weaker. Fear of socialism increases.

-economic problems. Debt from the war 3 to 23 billion. Inflation. Led to an increase in poverty especially in the South. Unemployment of a million.

-mutilated victory – D’Annunzio taking over Fuime for 15 months making the Liberals look weak.

1. 'Fascism obtained power in 1922 not through revolution but as the result of Mussolini's compromises with conservatives and liberals' How far do you agree?

Revolutionary personality- stands out and gets his way. Revolution- could be socialist revolution so the fear of socialist revolution like the Bolsheviks. March on rome intimidated the King and feared his cousin coming to power. His violence, distinctive glorified violence- trenchocracy.

-1921 PNF- switches ideas to get more votes. Works with Giolitti, Pope Keeps Monarchy. King supports him now. Dual Policy.

1. How far was the rise of the left responsible for the rise of Fascism in the period 1919-22?

Rise of left to large extent cause. Rise of trade union members. Biennio rosso. Russian revolution. - Shows horror and violence of communism. Only thing all parties have in common. Fascists get credit for crushing it.

-Weakness of liberal state- proportional representation, multiple prime ministers and no-one winning majority. PPI and PSI don’t want to work together. Splintering and fragmentation

-Mussolini’s charisma and dual policy. Strong and confident leader and the only one who could control Squadristi and seem respectable and not thuggish. Was not localised and could command a national following. Editor of avanti and use of Propaganda.

 

Of all the factors that made fascism possible the First World War was the most important' How far do you agree?

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