Paper 2: Stalin's aims and results of policies

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New Economic Policy

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1

New Economic Policy

  • 1921-28

  • state still controls the banks, foreign trade and large-scale industry

  • greater autonomy to small industry and loans and credit

  • eventually allowed for the new rouble

  • oct 1923: industrial prices were 276% of 1913 prices

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First Five Year Plan

  • gosplan established 1921

  • adopted in 1928 and approved at the 16th party Congress

  • production of energy and construction materials

  • unrealistic goals were set and revised upwards, exceeding practical possibility

    • 62% steel target met

    • 59% iron

    • 73.5% consumer goods

  • managers were under pressure to meet targets so lied and when found out were executed for capitalist plots → this led to severe worker and manager deficits

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second five year plan

  • 1933-37

  • annual increase of 14% of production goals with a focus on metallurgical resources and rail transportation

  • ultimately failed despite some gains in textiles and opening of new bakeries, food-processing, and meat-packing

  • significant gains (1934-6) in machinery and metal works, coal production and rail transport prior to a slow down in 1937

  • overall more successful that the first plan but still ultimately a failure

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third five year plan

  • 1938 - WWII

  • officially adopted in 1939

  • targets to achieve growth of 92% for industrial output

  • 58% steel

  • 129% machinery

  • many targets were revised down on account of labour shortages, metallurgy shortfalls

  • 1938-41 living standards decreased despite wage increase as a result of larger rise in free-market prices which roughly doubled between 1937-1940

  • by 1940 series of decrees issued in June and October → average work day lengthened to 8 hrs and week lengthened to 6 days

  • a worker was considered absent if late by 20 mins twice

  • workplace laws stayed in place until 1956

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improvement projects

  • Dnieprostroi Dam

  • Moscow Metro

  • Moscow-Volga and Volga-Don Canals

  • projects relied heavily on forced labour however labourers often worked enthusiastically under terrible conditions because they believed in a socialist project and their children’s future

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effects of the five year plans

  • 1939: world’s third largest industrial output

  • coal production increased by 350%

  • iron and steel by 400%

  • by 1940: industrial goods production had a 260% increase from 1928

  • urban workforce had grown to 32% of the population

  • GNP increased by 12% between 1928 → 1937

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collectivisation

  • 1929: 25 mil peasants had been collectivised

  • 1930: stalin dismantled the village mir system and introduced kolkhoz administration headed by an appointed chair

  • dizzy with success article in Pravda and temporary relent on the programme

  • collectivised households fell from 50% to 25%

  • 1932: livestock numbers were less that half those of 1928

  • 1933: put to 40% the country’s livestock had been slaughtered

  • bulk of the country’s food still grown on private peasant land

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Alexei Stakhanov

  • industrial hero supposedly mining 14x his quota

  • Stakhanovite movement

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9

youth programs

  • 9 and under: Little Octobrists - wore star pins with Lenin’s portraits

  • 9-14: All-Union Lenin Pioneer Organisation

  • 14-28: Komsomol

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religion

  • opiate of the masses

  • unofficial policy of “state atheism”

  • Church properties were transferred to local soviets and had to be rented to hold services

  • church salaries, nor pensions would be paid by the state and religious teachings were removed from school

  • stalin targeted church officials during collectivisation

  • he fashioned himself as a substitute for religious worship

  • 1924: hundreds of bishops and thousands of priests had been executed, imprisoned or sent into exile

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education

  • 1st October 1918: all schools renamed Uniform Labour School under the authority of Narkompros

  • Anatoly Lunacharsky and Nadezhda Krupskaya (Lenin's wife)

  • she improved libraries, making them widely accessible

  • during 30s core curriculum established → reading, writing, geography, maths, and science

  • people were encouraged to go as far up the education ladder as possible

  • 1941: 60% undergrads are women

  • 1913 → 1939: 40% → 90% men were literate

  • 1939: compulsory for children to have at least 7years formal schooling

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family life

  • lenin made divorce easier and abortion legal

  • stalin made it harder and illegal again in 1936

  • did provide crèches and canteen facilities to enable women to go back to work after childbirth

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13

the arts

  • 1920s artists had a lot of freedom to explore genres such as futurism and modernism, lenin rightly believed he had to be culturally flexible and to use cultural to help restore order

  • however Stalin viewed art only as a form of propaganda and artists had to conform to “Socialist Realism” glorifying the work of the five year plans and stalin

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Film

  • Lenin considered film an essential part of bolshevik propaganda especially in the countryside with high rates of illiteracy

  • 1920s near half of all movie-goers were aged 11-15

  • Sergei Eisenstein developed montage and type as film techniques

  • he also developed the ‘idea of mass spectacle’ using physical theatre and montage techniques tied to modernism and the red army’s programme of physical culture

  • Meyerhold (owned a theatre school) was arrested, tortured and killed in 1940 following the Purges

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Shostakovich

  • worked as a silent movie accompanist in Leningrad

  • stalin launched an anti-shostakovich campaign in 1936 and he was attacked in Pravda in February

  • his income dropped 75%

  • fourth symphony was delayed from mid 30’s to 1961

  • successfully rehabilitated himself in 1937 with his fifth symphony

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Literary culture

  • Gorky established a writer’s refuge and and publishing house called World Literature

  • smenovekhism emerged in the 1920s → left wing believed Russia needed the Bolsheviks as they were the only ones capable of keeping russia fee and independent from external aggression

  • but the right were whites hyping to transform the bolshevik dictatorship into an aggressive nationalist one

  • constructivism → transform social life through design of practical objects

    • Stepanova and Tatlin designed uniforms and workers’ clothes

    • Lissitzky designed simple furniture that could be massed produced for communal housing

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proletkult

  • working class intelligentsia → intention of breaking free from the control and domination of bourgeoisie to develop their now culture

  • Bogdanov assumed leadership

  • the movement peaked in 1920 with over 400,000 members in 300 branches

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the cultural revolution

1929-1954

  • advance socialism by attacking opponents and consolidate the stalin state

  • Shakhty trial of 55 people a morning complex in Donbass region accused of sabotage and treason

  • Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) established in 1928 made life impossible for non-proletariate writers to function outside of RAPP

  • independent voices in arts such as satirists were first to come under attack during the 1930s Purges and Terror

  • 1928 party conference on Cinema attacked avant-garde directors as formalists

  • regime abandoned establishing a new form of culture and instead reinvented Russian classics

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effects of Stalin’s attacks on the arts

  • narrow concept of socialist realism

  • restrictions on the content and form of art

  • made false linkages about social relationship between artist and the society artists could no longer ‘discover realtiy’ independently

  • 1936-7: 10/19 plays taken off major theatres, 56 plays removed and banned, 10 theatres in Moscow and 10 in Leningrad closed down

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cultural production in and after WWII

  • church was re-embraced and communism downplayed in the great national crusade

  • decided shift away from emphasis on trans-national cultural world → any comparison with the outside world that made the USSR look bad were challenged → led by Andrei Zhdanov

  • many writers and artists came under attack and were accused of being formalistic and anti-national (Shostakovich and Prokofiev)

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Censorship

  • political, subject and form censorship

  • informal patronage networks were established to bind the artist to the party → added legitimacy to the image of Stalin as a father-figure in his cult of personality

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policies and women

  • support for the emancipation of women

  • 1914 → 1917: women's participation in the workforce increased from 26% → 43%

  • the family code of 1918 gave women equal status → by the end of the civil war divorce and abortion were legalised and equal rights and pay were mandated

  • Zhenotdel established (but shut down by Stalin)

  • communal dining rooms, laundries, and childcare centres

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Lyudmila Pavlichenko

  • madame death

  • 309 confirmed German kills

  • 800,000 soviet women in red army combat roles

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women’s roles in society

  • 10-15% of the total party

  • 65,000 joined the Red army = 2% of the total

  • few assumed leadership roles

  • many pushed out the work place to make way for veterans

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Zhenotdel

  • local, regional, and national meetings

  • Alexandra Kollontai served as head for 1920-22 but was removed by the party as she criticised its policies with which she disagreed

  • Alexandra Artiukhina critiqued the patriarchy and gender norms

  • 1926-7 620,000 women attended conferences

  • it was brought under the Agitprop in 1930

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Sexual liberation

  • opinion was divided by age more than gender → older bolsheviks including Lenin and Kollontai took a more traditional view

  • so it was up to the younger generations to make sexual emancipation a communist cause

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women and five year plans

  • 1940: women constituted 39% of the total work force

  • 1939: 56% secondary school students and 50% of post secondary students were women

  • soviet statistics claim: 62% of physicians 42% economists, 36% faculty at higher institutions by the late 1930s

    • teaching and medicine became almost wholly the ‘preserve of women’

  • ¼ manual labourers were women

  • women did better and were payed better in typically male-dominated industries because of soviet priority on heavy industry

  • women joined the kolkhoz as individuals and many became tractor drivers

    • Praskovia Angelina became the soviet poster women for the women’s tractor movement

    • despite this women only constituted 6.8% of drivers in 1937

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new soviet women

  • homemaker established a conservative orgnanisation that donated to hospitals and child centres as well as being involved in many beautification projects

  • many were encouraged to move to Siberia’s far east and assist in building socialism by helping with infrastructure projects etc.

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the great retreat

  • women earned medals for giving birth to 10+ kids

  • abortion made illegal in 1936

  • irresponsible fathers were stigmatised

  • focus on marriage and families

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women and the war

  • 1943: women made up 8% of the regular army

  • 120,000 joined regular combat units

  • 1,885 women graduated sniper training school

    • Maria Polvanova and Natalia Kovshova earned the Order of the Red Star for over 300 kills each

  • women were up to 80% of Leningrad factory workers

  • Family Law of 1944 made divorce a lengthier process and introduced a tax on married people without children

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national minorities

  • lenin’s approach was typical of marxism that he favoured class over nationality and was advancing the demand for self-determination of colonial of dependent peoples as early as 1927

  • with the war the question of nationality became more significant and lenin began to be more flexible

  • some groups had gained temporary freedom until 1921 when forced back into a new kind of Russian empire

  • despite initial policies that encouraged some autonomy and local cultural development for all national groups, these rights were overturned in the 1920s

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Ukraine

  • the bolsheviks felt they needed Ukraine because of its strategic geographical location and wheat and coal

  • hence federalism → autonomy over linguistic and cultural issues

  • bolsheviks used initially education and modernisation to force assimilation but when this failed they used overt coercin

  • this was carrie out similarly in other states such as Georgia

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stalin’s approach to national minorities

  • lenin hoped states would freely elect to remain in the Soviet Union and wanted them to have independence and local control

  • Stalin was the opposite → he wanted centralised control and rule from Moscow

  • series of ‘waves’ after 1929

    • connotations of ‘reliable’ and ‘unreliable’ peoples

    • first major actions was soviet work to “cleanse” the borderlands of 500,000 “traitorous” poles and germans

    • similarly the Holodomor in Ukraine 1932-33 killing 7.5 mil people

    • Russian and Ukrainian outsiders were bough tin to serve in senior posts in minority groups to further severe cultural patterns

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national minorities in wartime and post-war

  • once the war arrived over 1 mil people from 7 nationalities including Volga germans were deported en masse to Siberia as perceived threats

  • during the war controls were loosened which reawakens nationalist feelings

  • July 1945-6: 400,000 Ukrainians and ruthenes were deported

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minorities post war

  • jews became Stalin’s regime targets

  • 1948 speech by Alexander Fadeyev “rootless cosmopolitans”

  • first target was chairman of Jewish Anti-Facist Committee established in 1941 on Stalin’s orders

  • 1948 Solomon Mikhoels was assassinated and the JAFC abolished

  • November it was decided all jews had to resettle in Siberia

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homosexuality

  • it was decriminalised with the abolishing of the Tsar’s Legal Code but this only applied to Russian SSR and Ukrainian SSR

  • Dr Grigorii Batkis (director of Social Hygiene Institute in Moscow) held progressive vies on homosexuality

  • delegates were sent to German Institute for Sexual Research and attended conferences until 1930

  • Stalin recriminalised it in 1933 with 5 years hard labour punishment

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37

Stalinist State

  • nomenklatura system established early on

  • stalinist elite were devoted to Stalin not ideology

  • ideology provided a vision, a long term goal that could be used to justify almost any policy initiative, no matter the cost

  • social revolution via mass mobilisation through propaganda and education as well as policies and programs that resonated with the masses

  • state controlled resources to force people to cooperate

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subjecting society to terror as a strategy of control

  • awareness becomes conditioned reality for almost everyone living in it

  • in addition to mass murders, gulags, political prisoners, there were mechanisms of political and social control eg. functioning informers

  • Stalin would eliminate categories instead instead of people

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