Comprehensive IR222 Military Technology, Ethics, and Cybersecurity Review

Technology

A specific and reproducible way of doing things and the artifacts/products created this way.

Technological determinism

Emerging technology has a technical, 'inevitable', and universal application that is a function of its material components/design = waiting to be discovered.

Bureaucratic/institutional approach

Institutional and bureaucratic actors compete for resources and authority to further mandate and the power/status.

Strategic culture

Culture sets contexts and parameters of organizational reactions to technology: military reshapes to support innovation, external shocks promote innovation and institutions/militaries learn from each other.

Constructivist view on technology

The ideas, norms, discourse, value and meaning attached to technology. It situates military and security actors in a broader socio-cultural context.

Offense-defense balance

War is more likely when offensive military operations have the advantage over defensive operations.

Difference between technical and technology

Technical means that attributes and effects of technologies are both socially made and real. Technology means that it is embedded in social, historical and material context.

Security studies

The study of the threat, use and control of military force.

Human security

Security that focuses on human issues (food, employment, people-centered) rather than states.

Positive (Galtung) peace

The presence of attitudes, institutions, and structures that create and sustain peaceful societies, going beyond the mere absence of violence.

Negative peace

Refers to the absence of direct violence, such as war and physical conflict.

Difference between political theory and political science

Political theory uses systematic reasoning—by developing theories, principles, and axioms—to understand and interpret politics. Political science answers questions about politics using the scientific method - using empirical evidence to systematically evaluate causal hypotheses.

Causal mechanism

Why and how things happen.

Expectations and probabilistic outcomes

How to understand things that might happen.

Frameworks

Ways to organize, synthesize reality, and make sense of reality.

Interpretive and normative concepts

How to understand social relations, norms, ethics and meanings.

Security dilemma

Many of the means by which a state tries to increase its security decrease the security of others.

Offence-defence balance

Conflict is more likely to occur when offence is stronger.

Realism

A theory that views the world as a competitive and conflictual arena where states prioritize their own security and national interests, often through the pursuit of power.

Liberalism

Focus on international cooperation, interdependence, and the role of institutions in promoting peace and prosperity.

Solving the security dilemma (realists' view)

Reputations, power balancing, absolute gains.

Difference between relative and absolute gains

Relative gains are zero sum, absolute gains are not.

Power balancing

States gaining confidence in security by combining with the strength of others.

Constructivism

Emphasizes the role of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping state behavior and the international system.

Norms

Socially accepted standards that guide behavior.

Laws of Armed Conflict

Regulations governing the conduct of armed conflict.

Meta-ethics

The branch of ethics that examines the nature of moral judgment and the origins of morals.

Normative ethics

The study of how to determine what is right and wrong.

Applied ethics

The application of normative ethics to social and political issues.

Ethical cognitivists

Those who believe that ethical truths exist.

Ethical non-cognitivists

Those who believe that ethical truths do not exist.

Moral absolutism

The belief that there are universal morals.

Moral relativism

The belief that morals vary between different societies and time periods.

Intrinsic good

Something that is good in and of itself, such as health.

Extrinsic good

Something that is good for the sake of something else, such as money.

Hedonism

A system of normative ethics that prioritizes pleasure as the highest good.

Desire satisfaction

A system of normative ethics that values the fulfillment of desires.

Egoism

A system of normative ethics that prioritizes self-interest.

Utilitarianism

A system of normative ethics that seeks the greatest good for the greatest number.

Kantian deontology

A system of normative ethics based on the principles of duty and moral rules.

Virtue ethics

A system of normative ethics that emphasizes moral character.

Situational ethics

A system of normative ethics that considers the context of a situation.

Just war theory

A doctrine that outlines the ethical conditions under which war can be declared.

Powell Doctrine

A set of principles for military engagement that includes clearly defined objectives and public support.

POV of Motives-First Approach

Intervention should only occur if the motive is humanitarian or reasonable.

POV of restrictionist/legal approach

Intervention should always be approved through proper legal channels.

Principle of distinction/discrimination

Combatants may be attacked only while in action; civilians and protected areas must not be attacked.

Combatants

Members of armed forces who distinguish themselves from the civilian population.

Principle of military necessity

Prohibits violence unnecessary to military objectives and actions like hostage-taking and pillaging.

Principle of humane treatment and non-discrimination

Mandates humane treatment of all individuals and prohibits torture.

POW

Prisoners of war.

Principle of proportionality

Requires assessment of military utility versus collateral damage and prohibits excessive force.

Courageous restraint

Showing military restraint even when it increases risk.

Rights of spies

Spies do not receive rights like POWs.

Weapons and tactics that are NOT COOL

Includes anti-personnel mines, cluster munitions, bio and chemical weapons.

Killing human shields

Preferably avoided, but legal obligations still apply.

Taking hostages

Prohibited under the laws of armed conflict.

Reprisals

May be ordered as a last resort under strict conditions.

Personal responsibility

Reciprocity of treatment, avoid death and destruction

Lethal Weapons

Weapons designed to kill or cause serious injury.

Non-Lethal Weapons

Weapons designed to inflict temporary harm without causing death.

Civilians' roles in warfare

Funding, fighting, political support.

Military strategy

The ideas that are implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals.

Military ops

The coordinated military actions taken in response to a situation.

Military tactics

The methods whereby men, equipment, and weapons are employed and directed against an enemy.

Collateral damage

The violence against civilians that results as an unintentional, secondary effect of violence against armed combatants.

Civilian targeting

The intentional violence perpetrated against civilians to harm or to intimidate.

Reasons for states restraining from violence against civilians

Instrumental, incidental, political, or normative reasons.

CNN effect

When the press releases something about a conflict, it gets the scrutiny of the public.

Counterinsurgency

The military strategy to win over the hearts and minds of the population.

Counterterrorism

The military strategy with the goal of eradicating an enemy force.

Implications of non-lethal weapons

Less risk of injury or death, since they are made to inflict temporary harm, but also the risk of exacerbating the violence.

Reasons for states demonstrating military capabilities

Deterrence and compellence, assurance, prestige, domestic purposes.

Compellence

Causes an adversary to take an action.

Deterrence

Prevents an adversary from taking an action.

MAD

Mutually assured destruction; nuclear capabilities raise the costs of war.

Nuclear optimism/rational deterrence theory

Nuclear weapons reduce risk of war through threat of highly costly retaliation.

Nuclear pessimism/organizational theory

Controlling a nuclear arsenal is difficult due to its complexity and potential for miscalculation.

Tactical nuclear weapons

Designed for battlefield use with limited range and impact.

Strategic nuclear weapons

Target larger, long-range objectives like cities or military infrastructure.

Nuclear proliferation

The acquisition of nuclear weapons.

Nuclear latency

Being on the pathway to nuclear weapons or having the capability to develop them.

Nuclear latent states

Iran, South Korea, Japan; Canada and the UAE have nuclear energy without enrichment.

Nuclear taboo

The norm against using nuclear weapons.

Nuclear restraint

Lack of material resources, organizational capabilities, technical know-how, qualified personnel, industrial capacity.

Arms control

Restrictions on the development, production, use etc. of nuclear weapons.

Disarmament

The reduction or elimination of a country's military weapons.

Nonproliferation

Efforts to stop the spread of nuclear weapons

Counterproliferation

Forceful efforts to try to make states rollback on their nuclear weapons programs

Motivations for arms control

Less likely and less catastrophic, strategic stability, building trust

Nuclear weapons reduce the risk of war

MAD, strategic stability, nuclear superiority, second strike capabilities, general deterrence, immediate deterrence

Challenges to nuclear arms control in cyberspace and AI

Increased connectivity, AI-integration and delegation, arms control for emerging tech

Epistemic domination

Digital models and ai are trained on western data, and thus reflects western ideas and knowledge.

Is technology gender-neutral?

No, it is constructed by gendered norms

Racialization

Capturing the race/racism as a process of social, political and economic ordering

Direct harm

Forms of harm, violence, and insecurity that are explicitly targeted based on different characteristics, identities, and social positions

Indirect harm

Forms of harm that affect people broadly, but are experienced differently depending on people's characteristics

Dangers of technology and race/gender

Surveillance, policing, targeting and exclusion of marginalized groups.

Data colonialism

The combination of predatory extractive practices of historical colonialism with the quantification methods of tech in formerly colonized peoples and spaces

Tech firms contribute to security

Contribution to economy, security and innovation providers