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consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
biological rhythms
periodic physiological fluctuations
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
suprachiasmatic nucleus
a pair of pinhead-sized clusters of 20,000 cells that control the circadian clock
melatonin
secreted by the pineal gland; sleep-inducing hormone
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
sleep spindles
bursts of rapid, rhythmic brainwave activity during stage 2 sleep
EEG
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measure by electrodes placed on the scalp
sleep
periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
somnambulism
sleepwalking
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, they occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind; dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream ; Freud believed that this functioned as a safety valve
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
addiction
compulsive drug craving and use
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
barbiturates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
ecstasy (MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen; produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug, also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
pineal gland
gland located in the center of the brain; secretes melatonin and serotonin
hypnagogic sensations
brief muscular contractions that occur as people fall aseep; feels like you're fallling
NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
activation-synthesis theory
a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories
substance use disorder
a pattern of long-term maladaptive behaviors and reactions brought about by repeated use of a substance
alcohol use disorder
(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.
Nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
Cocaine
a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score
general intelligence (g)
a general intelligence factor that according to Spearman and others underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measure by every task on an intelligence test
Charles Spearman
psychologist; believed there was a general intelligence, or g factor that underlies the various clusters in factor analysis
L.L. Thurstone
psychologist; proposed that intelligence consisted of 7 different primary mental abilities
Howard Gardner
psychologist; devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic
theory of multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner's theory of eight intelligences used to solve problems or solve culturally significant products
Robert Sternberg
psychologist; believed there were three types of intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical
triarchic theory of intelligence
Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance--thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8
Stanford-Binet
the widely used America revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test
Alfred Binet
psychologist; created first intelligence test for Parisian school children - created concept of mental age
Lewis Terman
psychologist; worked at Stanford, revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ=ma/ca*100); on contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn (the AT part of SAT)
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
David Wechsler
psychologist; developed tests similar to the Stanford-Binet IQ test, aimed at both adults and children
WAIS
Weschler Adult Intelligence Test the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
WISC
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, an adaptation of the WAIS for kids
standardization
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested standardization group
norms
in test construction, established standards of performance
standardization sample
the group of people helping to standardize a test
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes; most scores fall near the average, and few and fewer scores lie near the extremes
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score, the square root of the variance
z score
a measure of how many standard deviations you are away from the norm (average or mean)
Flynn effect
the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is suppose to (see also content validity and predictive validity)
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks)
criterion
the behavior (such as future college grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to predict; thus, the measure used in defining whether the test has predictive validity
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound
metacognition
thinking about thinking
Down syndrome
a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
psychometrics
area of psychology that uses psychological tests to measure the mind and mental processes
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test score and the criterion behavior (also called criterion-related validity)
face validity
the degree to which an assessment or test subjectively appears to measure a variable
grit
passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
Francis Galton
interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement
cohort
A population group unified by a specific common characteristic, such as age, and subsequently treated as a statistical unit.
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
Carol Dweck
reports that believing intelligence is biologically set and unchanging can lead to a "fixed mindset"; advocate of growth mindset
cognition
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to it provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrasts with the usually speedier, but more error-prone, heuristics
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but more error-prone than algorithms
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
inductive reasoning
informal reasoning; trying to asses the believability of a conclusion based on the evidence to support it--use a heuristic
deductive reasoning
formal reasoning; process of following a set of rigorous procedures to reach correct conclusions--use an algorithm
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving
