Exam 1 critical issues in justice

Early explanations of crime

Earliest theories focused on supernatural or religious causes; criminals were often believed to be possessed. Responses included exorcisms, primitive surgery, burning at the stake, and torture.

Enlightenment

18th-century European philosophical movement emphasizing reason and the critical reappraisal of existing ideas and social institutions.

Enlightenment view of human behavior

People were viewed as rational beings capable of making choices.

Social contract

Agreement between the governed and government defining and limiting the rights and duties of each.

Social contract and freedom

People sacrifice the least possible amount of freedom in exchange for safety; the sum of these sacrificed freedoms gives government the right to create laws and punish offenders.

Positive school of criminology

School of criminology that assumes human behavior is deterministic.

Determinism

Assumption that most human behavior is determined by factors beyond free will.

Early positivist theories

Focused primarily on deterministic biological and psychological explanations of crime.

Eugenics

Study of and policies related to improving the human race through control over reproduction.

Physiognomy

Study of the face; used historically in attempts to identify criminal tendencies.

Phrenology

Study of the shape of the human skull; historically used in attempts to explain criminal behavior.

Charles Darwin

Published Origin of the Species in 1859; evolutionary theory contributed to biological explanations dominating criminology into the early 20th century.

Cesare Lombroso

Developed the theory of the "born criminal."

Born criminal theory

Lombroso's theory that crime is committed by people who failed to evolve with the rest of society.

Atavists

Lombroso's term for people who supposedly failed to evolve and represented an earlier evolutionary stage.

Stigmata

Physical manifestations of atavism that Lombroso believed indicated an earlier evolutionary stage of development.

Lombroso's rule for identifying a born criminal

Having more than five supposed physical stigmata indicated a "born criminal."

Examples of Lombroso's stigmata

Head size/shape, facial asymmetry, large jaws and cheekbones, unusually large/small ears, fleshy lips, abnormal teeth, long arms, extra fingers/toes, brain asymmetry, and abnormal body hair.

Early spiritual explanations of IQ and crime

Criminals were viewed as dull-witted or possessed by the devil.

Early naturalistic explanations of IQ and crime

Focused on heredity and were influenced by Darwin.

Alfred Binet

Developed the IQ test in the early 1900s, after which crude theories linking intelligence and crime began to emerge.

H.H. Goddard

Applied IQ testing to social problems and argued that many societal problems resulted from "feeblemindedness."

Goddard's "moron" category

IQ of 51–70.

Goddard's "imbecile" category

IQ of 26–50.

Goddard's "idiot" category

IQ of 0–25.

Consequences of Goddard's ideas

Contributed to destructive policies including deportation of immigrants for supposed mental deficiency and forced sterilization.

Buck v. Bell (1927)

Case associated with the statement "three generations of imbeciles is enough"; the ruling was never completely overturned.

IQ and crime today

Research still finds a correlation between IQ and crime, but it is unclear whether the relationship is causal.

Verbal IQ and crime

More recent studies find that low verbal IQ significantly predicts delinquent and criminal behavior.

Early biological theories by the 1920s

Theories such as Lombroso's born criminal theory and phrenology fell out of favor, although biological research on crime continued.

Cytogenetic studies

Studies focusing on individuals' genetic makeup.

Typical female chromosomes

XX.

Typical male chromosomes

XY.

Chromosomal exceptions

Examples include XXY and XYY.

XYY males

According to the notes, XYY males are more likely to have behavioral disorders.

Hormones and criminal behavior

Abnormal hormone levels may influence behavior.

Hormones commonly studied in criminology

Testosterone and cortisol.

High hormone levels and behavior

High levels may masculinize the brain and push people toward aggressive and risky behavior, but effects are largely mediated by other factors.

Factors mediating hormonal effects

Social integration and prior involvement in juvenile delinquency.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals manufactured in the brain that are involved in biochemical activity and transmitting messages through the nervous system.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter responsible for feelings of pleasure and involved in responding to environmental cues such as fight-or-flight situations.

Dopamine overproduction

Associated in the notes with psychotic antisocial behavior and violence.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in processing emotions and controlling behaviors including aggression.

Low serotonin

Associated in the notes with depression, suicide, aggression, and violent behavior.

Frontal and temporal lobes

Brain regions involved in higher-level functions including problem solving, communication, and impulse control.

Brain injury and crime

Damage to the frontal or temporal lobes may make people more likely to act on emotions and take risks.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal column; responsible for voluntary motor activities.

CNS research in criminology

Includes brain imaging and brain-wave studies.

Psychopaths and brain waves

According to the notes, psychopaths tend to have slower brain-wave patterns.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Controls involuntary functions such as hormone levels, breathing, and heartbeat.

Low ANS functioning and crime

People with low ANS functioning may be more likely to commit crime.

Understimulation theory

A person with an understimulated ANS may seek risky or thrilling behavior, including crime.

Nature perspective

The idea that a person's genetic makeup has the largest impact on behavior.

Nurture perspective

The idea that how a person is socialized has the largest impact on behavior.

Examples of nurture influences

Parenting, peers/friends, neighborhood, and social class.

Family studies

Early studies examined whether offending clustered within families, raising the possibility of a "criminogenic gene."

Problem with family studies

Families share environments and experiences as well as genes, so family criminality does not prove crime is genetic.

Maternal criminality finding

Studies found a mother's criminality had a stronger impact on children than a father's, but this does not prove a genetic relationship.

Monozygotic twins

Identical twins from a single egg who share 100% of their genotype.

Dizygotic twins

Fraternal twins from two separate eggs who share approximately 50% of their genotype.

Twin studies

Compare criminality between identical and fraternal twins, often raised within the same household.

Concordance rate

Percentage of pairs of twins who exhibit a particular trait or disorder.

Twin study findings

Concordance rates for criminality tend to be higher among identical twins.

Environmental criticism of twin studies

Identical twins may be treated more similarly than fraternal twins, potentially contributing to higher concordance.

Adoption studies

Compare the influence of biological parents and adoptive parents on a child's criminality.

Adoption study findings

Strongest criminality effect was found when both biological and adoptive parents were criminal, but biological parents had a greater impact, particularly for property crimes.

Selective placement

Potential problem in adoption studies where adoptees may be placed into environments similar to their biological families, potentially muddying findings.

Twins separated at birth studies

Study identical twins separated at birth and raised in different environments.

Twins separated at birth finding

Notes report even higher concordance rates than earlier studies of identical twins raised in the same household.

Overall nature vs. nurture conclusion

Studies indicate that both biological and environmental factors affect criminality.

Biosocial explanations of crime

Current research trend focusing on interactions between biological and environmental factors.

Prenatal/perinatal influences and crime

Maternal mood, substance abuse, diet, and difficult delivery may increase risks such as low ANS functioning, learning disorders, and hyperactivity.

Social class and biological risks

In lower-income families, biological/developmental problems may be less likely to receive treatment and more likely to become exacerbated.

Official crime data

Crime data obtained from official components of the criminal justice system.

Sources of official crime data

Police, courts, and corrections.

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)

A major source of official crime data.

Victimization surveys

Surveys asking people about their experiences as victims of crime.

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

Major victimization survey used to measure people's experiences with crime.

Strength of victimization surveys

Can capture crimes that were never reported to authorities and illuminate the dark figure of crime, especially for less serious offenses.

Dark figure of crime

Crimes that occur but are not captured in official crime statistics.

Telescoping

Reporting a crime as occurring within the survey period when it actually occurred outside that period; misremembering the timing/date.

Limitations of victimization surveys

Telescoping and exclusion of groups such as homeless people and small children.

Self-report surveys

Surveys asking people about their own criminal activity.

Strengths of self-report surveys

Can reveal the dark figure of crime and include "victimless crimes" such as drug use; more accurate for minor offenses.

Limitations of self-report surveys

People may lie, particularly about serious crimes, and memories may be imperfect or affected by telescoping.

Drug hysteria

Public fear surrounding drugs and drug-related crime that can hinder evidence-based policy discussion.

1936 drug hysteria example

"Reefer madness."

1988 drug hysteria example

"Crack baby epidemic."

National Survey on Drug Use and Health

Broadest general drug survey; uses household self-reports.

NSDUH strength

Broad sample useful for examining national trends.

NSDUH limitation

Respondents may lie and it misses some high-risk groups, including homeless people and prisoners.

Monitoring the Future

Drug-use survey based on student self-reports from grades 8, 10, and 12 conducted in classrooms.

Monitoring the Future strength

Collects information from an important at-risk population: students.

Monitoring the Future limitation

Misses some of the most at-risk young people, including school dropouts.

Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN)

Uses information about drug-related hospital emergency-room admissions.

DAWN strength

Measures serious health consequences associated with drugs.

DAWN limitation

Reports mentions of drug use in medical reports.

Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) Program

Collects arrestee self-reports and urine specimens.

ADAM strength

Provides information about a population at high risk for both drug use and crime.

ADAM limitation

Not representative of the entire offender population because it only includes offenders who are caught.