exam 2 anatomy review

diseases that have not been taught yet - rickets and osteomalacia, osteopoorsis, myasthenia gravis

Shingles

VZV that causes chicken pox lays dormant in sensory neurons

Kyphosis

Hump condition rounded upper back

Lordosis

Exaggerated lumbar curve

Scoliosis

Lateral side ways curve

Osteoporosis

Degenerative disease of isolated joints of the articular cartilage cause of excessive wear

Inflammation secondary cartilage erosion follows

Rheumatoid arthritis

Systemic chronic inflammation disorder on multiple joints ankylosis can occur destroying articular cartilage and adjacent bone.

Gout

build up of urate crystals in joints that causes acute inflammatory reaction

Unknown cause but could be linked to chronic renal disease (kidney cannot excrete urate crystals

Bursitis

inflammation of the bursae a synovial lined sac

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Entrapment of the median nerve as it passes through the connective tissue sheath causing numbness, pain and tingling

Muscular Dystrophy

group of muscle disorders characterized by progressive muscle weakness and degradation

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

genetic defect in Dystrophin (ac cessory protein that stablizes the thin filaments)

Albinism

Defects in melanocytes differentiation (the are not produced) or defects in melanin production - there are different forms of this with different defects

Vitiligo

autoimmune mediated destruction of melanocytes

Malignant Melanomia

neoplasia of melanocytes. can spread to the dermis, lymph nodes and blood

Acanthosis

Abnormal epidermal thickening, usually stratum spinosum (level of epidermis)

rete pegs: epidermal extentions into papillary are abnormally long

Associated with chronic inflammatory condition, insulin resistance, obesity

Hyperkeratosis

thickening of the corneum and stratum granulosum

Parakeratosis

cells of corneum retain nuclei, normally occurs in oral cavity, may occur with some skin conditions

Psoriasis

• Chronic Inflammatory Conditions

• Excessive proliferation of the keratinocytes and accelerated upward cellular migration

• Cell reaches surface layers before the are filled with keratin

• Scaly white patchs and red inflamed areas

Acne

Chronic disease involving hair follicle blockage and inflammation

• Breakdown of sebaceous lipids into fatty acids irritates skin resulting in HYPERPROLIFERATION of epidermal cells

• excess epidermal cells block the hair follicle causing of excess sebum and inflammation

  • genetic, excess androgens, bacteria contribute the the development of acne

Intervertebral Foramen

opening wear spinal nerve exits through the vertebral column, formed by the articulation of adjacent vertebrae.

Where and why are spinal tap given there

Spinal taps are given at L3 because the cauda equina the tail of dorsal and ventral nerve roots extend here to reach the lower exrematies . It will avoid hitting the spinal cord here

cauda equina

the of the spinal cord that floats and reaches the lower extrematies

What does the Spinal Cord (SC) made up of?

• Inner gray matter where the neurons are located

• Outer white matter ( axons running up and down SC)

• motor neurons are located in the Grey matter Ventral horns and the lateral horns

• No sensory neurons in here

Dorsal Root and Cranial nerve sensory ganglia

where the pseudounipolar ( only found int PNS Sensory Ganglia) neurons due to them being GENERAL sensory neurons

Ventral Root

Carries motor neurons

• this and dorsal root make up the spinal root 31 pairs that carry axons to the tissue of the outer body)

Dorsal Root

Carries central process (axon) of pseudounipolar neurons( which extend through the spinal nerve to innervate the skin and skeletal muscle)

• this and the ventral root make up the spinal nerve ( 31 pairs that carry axons to the tissue of the outer body)

Dorsal Ramus

gives rise to the nerves that innervate the back proper

Ventral Ramus

gives rise to nerves that innervate the anterior body and limbs

• gives rise to nerve roots that branch and join forming collection of nerves or a nerve plexus - branches of this innervate (sends axons to) limbs and body wall

Cervical Plexus

C1 - C5

Innervate the neck

Brachial Plexus

C5 -T1

Innervate the upper limbs

Thoracic Spinal Nerve

T2 -T11

does not form a plexus as it runs along the ribs

Lumbar Plexus

T12 - L4

innervates the lower limbs

Sacral Plexus

L4 - S4

Innervate the pelvi and gluteal region

Dorsal Root Ganglia

Pseudounipolar general sensory neurons are located in this ganglia _______

Sympathetic Chain Ganglia and Prevertebral (preartotic) ganglia

Sympathetic Motor neurons are located in this ganglia _______

Cranial Nerve Motor Ganglia and Intramural Ganglia

Parasympathetic Motor neurons are located in these ganglia _____

Somatic Tissues are made of/ found in

Skeletal muscle and skin which are found in the outer body

Visceral Tissues are made of/found

Found in the outer and inner body and include

• Gland: found in the skin (outer body)

• Smooth Muscle: found in the blood vessals and arrector pili (raise skin hair)

• Cardiac Muscle (inner body)

What nerves Innervate the outer body wall?

spinal nerves are made of motor and sensory axons

• Skin needs sensory innervations

• Skeletal muscle needs motor innervation and sensory innervation

• Visceral Tissue needs sympathetic innervations

What tissue in the outer body need innervations?

The 3 components (axons) of a spinal nerve

• These are the 3 components of what?

• Motor axons to skeletal muscle

• Sensory Axons (peripheral processes of pseudounipolar neurons) to skin and skeletal muscle

• Sympathetic motor post ganglionic axons to viscera of the outer body

Spinal Cord Ventral Horns

Where the NCB of a spinal nerve motor axon to skeletal muscle located?

Dorsal Root Ganglia

Where the NCB of a spinal nerve sensory axon located?

Autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)

Visceral tissue recieve MOTOR innervation from this?

Parasympathetic system

control rest and digest and sexual arousal - controlled by the ANS

Sympathetic System Pathway

controls the bodies fight or flight response - is controled by the ANS

• innervates ALL VISCERAL TISSUE

• sympathetic preganglionic neurons ALWAYS located on the lateral horn in the T-L levels

• axon travels through ventral horn and root → then to short nerve called the SYMPATHETIC CHAIN GANGLIA

  • post-ganglionic axon goes through a spinal nerve to get to the outer body → goes through the ramus communicans to the join spinal nerve and travels through branches of the SN to innervate the outerbody viscera

Autonomic Nervous System

• its pre-ganglionic neuron is located in the CNS and its axon synapsis on the ganglionic neuron (post-ganglionic) in the motor ganglion in the PNS

• Post-ganglionic neuron synapsis on glands, smooth muscle or cradiac muscle (visveral tissue)

Spinal Nerve Components

1. Motor to skeletal muscle

2. Sensory to skin and muscle

3. Sympathetic motor to blood vessels, sweat glands, arrector pili

Sympathetic Pathways

For internal organs, ____________ preganglionic axons will synapse in either the sympathetic chain or the preaortic (prevertebral) ganglia. The postganglionic axons don’t use spinal nerves to get to the organs but go through special nerves to get to the organs

Parasympathetic Pathway

• cranial nerves and pelvic nerves provide _______ innervation to internal organs

• Organs from HEAD to LOWER ABDOMINAL - preganglionic neuron is in the BRAIN and synapse on either the CRANIAL NERVE MOTOR GANGLIA or INTRAMURAL GANGLIA IN THE ORGAN WALLS

• Internal organs in the PELVIS preganglionic neuron is located on LATERAL HORN of the SC at Sacral Levels

  • preganglionic axon travels through PELVIC SPLANCHNIC NERVES to reach the intramural ganglia in organ walls where it synapses on the ganglionic neurons

Spinal Cord lateral horn thoracic/lumbar levels

Where are the NCBs of all sympathetic pregangliionic axons located?

Sympathetic Chain Ganglia or preaortic ganglia

Where are the NCBs of sympathetic postganglionic axons located?

Sympathetic chain ganglia (1)

Where is the NCBs of a sympathetic postganglionic axon that innervates body wall viscera located? (1)

Sympathetic Chain Ganglia (2)

Where is the NCB of a sympathetic postganglionic axon that innervates head and thoracic visceral organ located (2)

Preaortic Ganglia

Where is the NCB of a sympathetic postganglionic axon that innervates the abdominal & pelvic viscera located?

In cranial nerve nuclei in the brain

Where are the NCBs of parasympathetic preganglionic axons that innervate viscera in the head on down to the lower abdomen located?

In the cranial nerve motor ganglia located in the head or in intramural ganglia in the walls of organs

Where are the NCBs of parasympathetic postganglionic axons that innervate viscera from the head on down to the lower abdomen located?

• The NCB of preganglionic neurons are located in the spinal cord lateral horn sacrel levels

• The NCBs of ganglionic neurons are located in the intramural ganglia

For parasympathetic innervation of the pelvic viscera, where are the preganglionic and ganglionic neurons located?

Pelvic splanchnic Nerve

What nerve carry parasympathetic preganglionic axons to pelvic viscera?

Fontanelles

this separates the skull bones at birth

it is a dense CT

at birth the skull bones start as “islands” that fuse together as the baby grows - intramembranous bone formation

Spine weight and size

• from top (superior) to bottom (inferior) SC decreases in diameter and the verterbral canal decreases in diameter to match with it

• the weight loa increases as you go from superior to inferior therefore the vertebral centra increases in size with the sacrum fuse for greatest stability

Atlas and Axis Articulation

• are special vertebrae

• Atlas (sit directly under skull) has no spinous processes which allows us to move our head around

• Axis has a large projection called a dens that rotates INSIDE the vertebral canal of the atlas. dens his held together a special ligament

  • this is why it is important to support a babies head so we do not damage this because it can be critical

Sacrum, inferior ilium and superior pubic bone and symphysis

What are the borders of the pelvic inlet?

Sacrum, coccyx, ischium and inferior pubic bones and symphysis

What are the borders of the pelvic outlet?

Female Adaptations for Childbearing

• A wider more circular pelvic inlet

• Sacrum is shorter and wider with flater curvature

• Coccyx tilts posteriorly

• Lager pubic bone

• The inferior angle between the opposite pubic bones is farther apart

• the illium projects farther laterally

Synarthroses Joint

Immovable (sutures of skull)

Amphiarthroses Joint

Slightly moveable (pubic symhysis, vertebral)

Diarthroses Joint

Freely moveable (synovial joints - articular cartilage on the ends of the bones: hyaline cartilage)

• Joint Capsule: outer dense CT, inner synovial membranesurrounding a joint and enclosing the synovial cavity, providing stability and secreting synovial fluid.

• Synovial membrane: inner surface consists of synovial cells that secrete a viscous fluid.

• Synovial fluid: combination of synovial cell secretion, capillary ultrafiltrate and WBCs

• In some joints, the synovial lined sac is called a bursa. Inflammation of the bursa: bursitis

Synarthrosis: No movement

What type of joint are the skull sutures?

Pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints

Give an example of an amphiarthrosis Joint

The synovial membrane consists of cells that secrete synovial fluid that lubricate the joint

In a diarthrosis joint or synovial joint, what lines the joint capsule and what is its functions?

Skeletal Muscle Characteristics

Cell Features: Long cells, multinucleated

Locations: Outer Body muscles

Myosin, actin, Tropomyosin: Yes has it

Troponin: Has it

Special Features:

• Red Fibers: lots of myosin, slow sustained cintractions

• White Fibers: less myosin, rapid contraction, easily fatigue

Mitotic Capacity: adult cells cannot divide

Hypertrophy when stressed: Yes

Striated: Yes

Cardiac Muscle

Cell Features: Short branching cells, central nucleus

Locations: Heart

Myosin, actin, Tropomyosin: has it

Troponin: Has it

Special Features:

• Intercalated discs which are intracellular attachments thatfacilite rapid synchronized contraction

Mitotic Capacity: adult cells cannot divide

Hypertrophy when stressed: Yes

Striated: Yes

Smooth Muscle

Cell Features: Wispy Cells with long nuclei

Locations: Walls of blood vessels, hollow organs, arrector pili

Myosin, actin, Tropomyosin: Yes has it

Troponin: DOES NOT HAVE IT SO THE MECHANISM OF CONTRACTION IS DIFFERENT FROM SKELETAL AND CARDIAC MUSCLE

Special Features:

• Dense Bodies: Cytoskeletal proteins that attach to the thick and thin filaments and the cell membranes

Mitotic Capacity: HIgh Regenerative Capacity

Hypertrophy when stressed: Yes

Striated: No

Flex elbow

Location of Muscle: Anterior Arm

Origin: Humerus

Insertion: ulna, radius

Its action is?

Extend Wrist

Location of Muscle: posterior forearm

Origin humerus

Insertion: metacarpals

Its action is?

Adduct Shoulder

Location of Muscle: Back

Origin vertebrae

Insertion: scapula

Its action is?

Flex Vertebral Column

Location of Muscle: Anterior Vertebral Column

Origin Anterior Surface of Vertebrae

Insertion: Vertebrae and the base of skull

Its action is?

Adduct Hip

Location of Muscle: Medial Thigh

Origin pubis

Insertion: femur

Its action is?

Plantarflex Ankle

Location of Muscle: Posterior leg

Origin Femur, tibia, fibula

Insertion: Tarsals, metatarsals

Its action is?

Myofilaments

Thick and thin filaments

• Skeletal and cardiac muscle cells are filled with many overlapping _____________

• Smooth Muscle: ___________ criss-cross rather than overlap

thick filaments and the 2 binding sites

————- are composed of myosin molecules that have globular heads which bind for ATP and a binding site for Actin of the thin filament. The 2 sites can’t be occupied by actin and ATP at the same time

What are the 3 components of thin filaments?

F- actin

Tropomyosin

Troponin: 3 subunits → TnC binds to calcium, TnT bind to tropomyosin, TnL inhibits actin-myosin interaction

What is a sarcrimere?

The smallest unit of muscle contraction: the distance between the two Z lines

A band

dark band, zone occupied by the thick filament and overlapping part of thin filament

I Band

·light band, zone occupied by only thin filaments

Z line

In the center of the I band, point of attachment between adjacent thin filaments

At rest/contract what do the thick and thin filament do?

They partially overlap. When a muscle contracts, the thin filament slides across the thick filament towards the middle of the thick filament

sarcoplasmic reticulum

It stores and releases Calcium

T-Tubule

It is an extension of the muscle cell plasma membrane (sarcolemma) that dips down into the muscle cell in between the sarcoplasmic reticulum. A triad is 1 T-tubule and adjacent sarcoplasmic reticulum

Accessory Linker Proteins

Stabilize and maintain alignment of actin and myosin and link myofibrils to each other and the external lamina

If there is a defect in accessory linker proteins, the thick and thin filaments are unstable and the muscle fiber can tear when contracted (cause of the Muscular dystrophies)

Neuromuscular Junction

1 nerve fiber (axon) may innervate 1 muscle fiber or branch to many muscle fibers

• 1 nerve fiber and all muscle fibers it innervates is called a motor unit.

• Motor neuron axons terminate as motor endplates and the plasma membrane is the presynaptic membrane

Muscle Contraction

• Relaxed muscle: myosin - actin interaction is blocked.

• Neural stimulation causes depolarization of the muscle plasma membrane.

• The depolarization spreads to the T-tubules and the adjacent sarcoplasmic reticulum.

• Stored calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Motor neurons release the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine into the synaptic gap/cleft.

• The muscle fiber plasma membrane (postsynaptic membrane) is thrown into junctional folds and has acetylcholine receptors.

Calcium floods around the myofibrils and binds to TnC of troponin.

• Troponin shifts, tropomyosin shifts and this exposes binding site on actin.

• ATP bound to the myosin head hydrolyzes into ADP + phosphate

• Myosin binds to actin forming a “crossbridge”.

• Myosin pulls actin towards the center of the thick filament

Muscle Relaxation

New ATP binds to myosin causing release of myosin from actin and the cross-bridge is broken.

• Rigor mortis (stiff death) sustained contraction after death due to lack of ATP. Without new ATP, the myosin head remains linked to actin.

Proprioception

It is our skeletal muscle position sense. It is a general sensory function so muscles must have special sensory receptors.

What receptors convey proprioception in skeletal muscle?

Special stretch receptors: the muscle spindle in muscle and the Golgi tendon organ in the tendon attached to the muscle.

Stratum Basale

• In space 1

  • highest proliferation of the epithelial cells

Stratum spinosum

• in space 2

• keratin production

• the desmosome attachments between cells gives them a spiny appearance

Stratum Granulosum

• in space 3

• cells contain keratohyalin granuales and keratinosomes

Stratum Lucidum

• bottom 4

• cells are dead

  • have lost there nucleus and organelles