HLTH 380 - Week 02 Ethical Theories

What is an ethical dilemma?

When a decision must be made, but none of the available options are completely satisfactory because each violates a value we consider important.

Are ethical dilemmas easy to solve?

No, they are hard to find a set solution for.

How do ethical theories help us deal with dilemmas?

They provide rational decision-making, enable us as moral agents, justify our chosen actions, and help us avoid breaching ethical conduct in the medical realm.

What is metaethics?

The examination of the nature and status of morality itself, questioning whether moral values are real/objective or human-constructed.

What is normative ethics?

The examination of standards that determine how to act morally and lead a moral life.

How does normative ethics differ from metaethics?

Metaethics questions if morality is real; normative ethics assumes morality is real and asks how to apply it to life.

What is applied ethics?

Applying moral theories and principles to specific moral problems using ethical tools to solve real-world issues.

What is bioethics?

The application of ethical theories to situations involving the human body, medicine, and emerging technologies that affect how humans live and make decisions.

Who is bioethics specific to?

People in healthcare sectors, such as doctors and nurses.

Example of a bioethical question?

“Is it right or wrong to request people for organ donations?”

What is public health ethics?

A systematic approach that clarifies, prioritizes, and justifies courses of action aimed at improving public health using ethical theories.

What is cultural relativism?

The idea that perceptions of right and wrong vary between cultures based on differing beliefs and practices.

Example of cultural relativism?

Some cultures condone early arranged marriage, while others do not.

What is subjectivism?

The belief that every moral value is subjective and there is no universal right or wrong; morality depends on individual interpretation.

Example of subjectivism?

Stealing, lying, or cheating cannot be universally wrong since it depends on individual judgment.

What is moral realism?

The belief that universal moral truths and ethical principles exist independently of personal or cultural perspectives.

If I believe that cheating is always wrong, I am a:

Moral realist.

How would relativists or subjectivists respond to cheating?

They would say “it depends on the situation.”

What does utilitarianism focus on?

The consequences of an action performed.

What is Bentham’s utilitarianism based on?

A scientific and egalitarian approach focusing on total pleasure and pain produced.

What is Bentham’s hedonic calculus used for?

As a guide for individuals and policymakers to make moral decisions that maximize pleasure and minimize pain for the greatest number of people.

How are actions judged in Bentham’s calculus?

By comparing the good tendency (pleasure) and evil tendency (pain) to determine which outweighs the other.

Who is included in Bentham’s moral calculations?

Everyone affected by the action, including animals.

What are the strengths of Bentham’s utilitarianism?

It is egalitarian, universal, and considers all individuals equally.

What are the weaknesses of Bentham’s utilitarianism?

Only pleasure is valued, measurement is difficult, and not all pleasures are equal.

Example question: Which of the following pleasures count in Bentham’s hedonic calculus?

All of the above (including even immoral pleasures, like a killer’s pleasure).

What is the Greatest Happiness Principle?

Actions are right if they promote happiness and wrong if they produce the opposite.

How does Mill define happiness?

Pleasure without pain.

How are pleasures categorized in Mill’s theory?

As higher (intellectual, moral, cultural, emotional) or lower (physical, sensory).

Which pleasure takes priority?

Higher pleasures always take priority.

Weakness of Mill’s view?

Bias from experienced individuals; subjectivity in determining higher pleasures; potential inequality in valuing opinions.

What is Act utilitarianism?

Judges individual actions by whether they produce the most happiness in that situation.

Can morally wrong acts be justified in Act utilitarianism?

Yes, if they produce overall happiness.

What is Rule utilitarianism?

Follows moral rules that generally produce the greatest happiness for society.

Example difference between Act and Rule utilitarianism?

Act: lying once to make a friend happy; Rule: not lying because “don’t lie” benefits society overall.

What are strengths of utilitarianism?

It’s egalitarian and seeks to maximize happiness for the largest number.

What are weaknesses of utilitarianism?

Hard to measure pleasure/pain, uncertain outcomes, and ignores other values.

What does deontological theory focus on?

Whether an action is right or wrong regardless of its consequences.

What defines moral action in deontology?

Acting from a sense of moral duty guided by reason, not for personal gain.

What is goodwill?

The intention to act morally out of duty.

Is an unintentional good act moral?

No, moral acts require intentional goodwill.

What is reason in deontology?

The rational ability to know right from wrong and recognize moral duties.

What makes an act morally good?

It must be done out of duty, not emotion or gain.

Example: A teacher answering questions for pay vs. duty— which is moral?

Answering out of duty.

Can emotions make an act moral?

No, moral acts require rational duty, not emotion.

What three elements make an act fully moral?

Goodwill, reason, and duty.

What happens when duties conflict?

Choose the action that best fulfills moral obligations or refer responsibility to another.

Which action is most moral under Kantian logic?

A mother who takes care of her child even though she resents the child.

What is the Categorical Imperative?

Kant’s universal test to determine moral rightness.

What is a Hypothetical Imperative?

A conditional rule for achieving personal goals (If you want X, do Y).

What are Kant’s two key formulations of the CI?

Universal law formulation and Humanity as an end formulation.

What is the Universal Law formulation?

Only act if your rule could be applied universally without contradiction.

Example of Universal Law?

Cheating isn’t moral because if everyone did it, exams would lose meaning.

What is the Humanity formulation?

Always treat others as ends in themselves, not as means to your goals.

Strengths of Kant’s theory?

Promotes justice, dignity, and accountability.

Weaknesses of Kant’s theory?

Can be rigid, creates conflicts of duty, and assumes all moral agents are rational.

What does virtue ethics focus on?

The character of a person—what kind of person you should be.

What question does virtue ethics ask?

“Who am I?” and “Who am I becoming?”

What is teleology?

The belief that everything has a purpose or goal.

What is eudaimonia?

Happiness through living well and fulfilling one’s potential (human flourishing).

How is “goodness” defined in virtue ethics?

Performing one’s function well (excellence).

What is “the mean”?

Finding a virtuous balance between extremes (too much or too little).

Strengths of virtue ethics?

Focuses on moral character, emotion, and personal development.

Weaknesses of virtue ethics?

Lacks clear rules, is culturally specific, and incomplete for societal guidance.

What do feminist approaches critique?

Traditional, male-dominated ethical theories.

What do feminist ethics emphasize?

Emotions and relationships in moral judgment.

Who developed the Ethics of Care?

Carol Gilligan.

What distinguishes the Ethics of Care from Ethics of Justice?

Care focuses on relationships and emotion; Justice focuses on abstract rules.

Example of care ethics in healthcare?

A nurse comforting a dying patient is as morally important as a surgeon performing surgery.

What does broader feminist ethics include?

Challenges to power hierarchies and inequalities in moral reasoning.

Strengths of feminist ethics?

Values relationships and care; relevant to medical practice.

Weaknesses of feminist ethics?

Risks reinforcing gender stereotypes and lacks clear guidance.

Example question: What would feminist theories ask?

“What voices are not represented by classical ethical theory?” → All of the above.

What does liberalism focus on?

How people should be treated in society with fairness and equal opportunity.

Who is associated with liberal ethics?

John Rawls and his Theory of Justice.

What is personal autonomy?

The right of individuals to make their own choices with minimal state interference.

When should government intervene according to liberalism?

Only when actions cause harm to others.

What is the role of HCPs in liberal ethics?

To facilitate patient choices, not make them.

Strengths of liberalism in ethics?

Respects autonomy and personal beliefs.

Weaknesses of liberalism in bioethics?

Poor fit for healthcare; may allow harmful choices; creates clashes between patient and professional autonomy; unclear in complex cases.