Development of the Adolescent

Exam 1 content

Developmental Psychology

The study of changes in psychological characteristics over time

Ontogeny

A type of development referring to changes in an individual over time

Phylogeny

A type of development referring to evolutionary changes of a species

Domains of Development

Physical and psychomotor (body, brain, senses), socioemotional (personality, relationships, emotions), cognitive (thinking, memory, language)

Lifespan Periods

Infancy (0-2 years), early childhood (2-7 years), middle childhood (7-12 years), adolescence (12-18 years)

Neontocracies

A cultural view of children depicting them as the highest value in society

Gerontocracies

A cultural view of children depicting them as the lowest value in society

WEIRD

Western, english-speaking, industrialized, rich, democratic societies

Timeline of Views on Children

Ancient World: infanticide, slavery, little to no distinction between children and adults —> 1600s-1700s: Foundling homes —> 1800s: Improvements in child survival rates —> 1900s: Child labor laws imposed, universal schooling more prevalent —> 1989: UN Convention on the rights of the child

Stability vs. Plasticity

A debate in developmental psychology asking if traits are constant or change over time

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

A debate in developmental psychology asking if development is gradual and cumulative, or occurs in distinct stages

Nature vs. Nurture

A debate in developmental psychology asking if individual differences are driven by genetic inheritance and biological factors or environmental influences

Empiricism

An extreme position on nature vs. nurture, deciding that the environment is all that matters

Nativism

An extreme position on nature vs. nurture deciding that biology is all that matters

Sensitive periods

The idea that we are more ready at certain points in development to receive certain inputs

Developmental Contextualism

Idea that development occurs because of continuous and bidirectional interactions between a child and their environment

Sociocultural Theory

Idea that development is mediated and moderated by language, customs, values, and institutions

Evolutionary Theory

An idea based on Darwinian natural selection that states many psychological traits are adaptive responses to ancestral environments

Correlational vs. Experimental

A design in research that decides between looking at relationships between two variables or manipulating a variable to determine whether an effect is present

Cross-sectional

A research design that studies different age groups at a single point in time

Longitudinal

A research designs that studies the same individuals over time

Cross-seqential

A research design that is a combination of both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (studies age groups in multiple cohorts over time)

Methods of collecting data

Structured interviews, clinical interviews, questionnaires and standardized tests, observational studies, case studies

Ethical Issues/Concerns

Obtaining informed consent and child assent, minimizing harm, protecting confidentiality, executing special care with vulnerable populations

Genetics

The study of inheritance (how traits are passed from parents to offspring through DNA)

Gregor Mendel

Moravian monk who recorded traits in successive generations of pea plants

Chromosomes

Collection of rod-shaped bodies in every cell nucleus

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating molecule which makes up chromosomes

Genes

Individual segments of DNA, and the foundational unit of heredity

Genotype

An individual’s genetic makeup

Phenotype

Observable traits influenced by genotype and the environment

Sex Chromosomes

The 23rd (and final, we only have 23) pair of chromosomes

Sex-Assigning Chromosomes

Female is XX, and male is XY

Mutations

A random change in genetic sequence; not always negative, and provides evidence for evolution

Germline mutations

Mutations that are heritable (can be inherited)

Somatic mutations

Mutations that are not heritable (cannot be inherited)

Epigenetics

Modifications in how genes are expressed (turned on or off) without changing the DNA code itself; bridges the gap between nature and nurture

Behavioral Genetics

Investigates how genetic and environmental factors combine to influence traits and behavior

Coordinance Rates

The likelihood that both individuals in a pair share a trait

Most likely to share traits (descending order)

Identical twins raised together, identical twins raised apart, siblings raised together, siblings raised apart

Heritability

Statistical estimate of genetic contribution to trait variance in a population

Gene x Environment Interactions (GxE)

Graphs that show how genetics are not necessarily deterministic, and that development depends on how genes and the environment interact

Evolutionary Developmental Psychology

Based on evolutionary theory (rooted in natural selection and survival of the fittest) – those with advantages were more likely to successfully reproduce, therefore passing down those advantages

Deferred Adaptations

Adaptations that evolved to prepare children for adulthood (developed early in life, serve function later in life)

Ontogenetic Adaptations

Behaviors, reflexes, or traits that appear at certain stages of development and serve immediate, short-term survival or social functions

Biologically Primary Abilities (evolved)

Speaking

Biologically Secondary (culturally acquired)

Reading

Attachment

A practical application developmental of psychology that promotes caregiver proximity and infant survival

Play

A practical application of developmental psychology that causes children rehearsing social, cognitive, and physical skills for adulthood

Culture

Shared practices, beliefs, values, and tools of a group – transmitted from one generation to the next. Inseparable from child devleopment

Average Acceptable Environment

Children are prepared by natural selection to respond to a wide range of circumstances

Examples of behaviors that differ from culture to culture

Eye contact, voice volume, emotional expression, independence

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

A child exists at the center of a series of environmental influences

Microsystem

Social systems in which a child is an active participant (family, school, peer group)

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems

Exosystem

Social systems which a child is not part of but which influence their lives

Macrosystem

Values, attitudes, laws, ideology of a society

Chronosystem

The child and all other levels change over time

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Perspective of development that emphasizes historical, cultural, and social components

General Genetic Law of Cultural Development

Cognition occurs on two planes: first, the social, then the psychological

Zone of Proximal Development

The difference between a child’s actual level of ability and the level of ability that they can achieve when working under the guidance of a more qualified instructor

Sociohistorical Influences

History and culture shape the mind, both in the past and present (Printing press —> literacy, Internet —> digital natives)

Guided Participation

Extends zone of proximal development; learning happens not just through direct instruction but through activities of everyday life

Apprenticeship

Novice children improve skills and understanding through participation with more skilled partners in culturally organized activities

Shared Memory

Reinforces identity and cultural values

Tinbergen’s Four Questions

Function (what is it for?), ontogeny (how does it develop across the lifespan?), phylogeny (how did it evolve in the species?), mechanism (what processes underlie it?)

Prenatal Development

A type of development that begins at fertilization (sperm and ova are each gametes that combine to form a zygote), lasts approximately 38 weeks, and ends with birth

Germinal Phase

First phase of prenatal development; weeks 1-2; begins when ovum is penetrated by a sperm in the fallopian tube and begins its journey to the uterus

Embryonic Phase

Second phase of prenatal development; weeks 3-8; most of the basic organ systems are formed (organogenesis), including nervous system, basic organs, skin; rapid growth

Fetal Phase

Third phase of prenatal development; weeks 9-38; dramatic growth of the organs and body structures; becomes baby; ends with birth

Maternal Risk Factors

Age, fetal malnourishment, maternal stress

Enviornmental Agents Effecting Prenatal Development

Teratogens, medications, drugs, toxic substances and products, infectious diseases

Teratogens

External factors like drugs and radiation that can have harmful effects

Birth

full term delivery is 38 weeks; process is labor, delivery, and afterbirth (placenta)

Prematurity

Born between 23 and 37 weeks; most spend time in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU), some for short periods of time, others for a longer term

Kangaroo Care

Premature babies placed on the skin of a parent or between a mother’s breasts to improve development

Neonatal Reflexes

Several pre-wired responses to stimuli that facilitate survival; likely developed through natural selection

Physical development

Orderly and predictable form of development

Cephalocaudal Development

A kind of development starting from the head downwards

Proximodistal Development

A kind of development starting from the center outwards

Infancy and Early Childhood Development

Birth weight doubles by around 5 months, triples by around 1 year; rapid height/weight increase in first 2 years; slower, steady growth in early childhood (sleep and nutrition critical)

Middle Childhood Development

Slower, steady, increased strength, coordination, endurance, permanent teeth emerge

Enviornmental Factors Affecting Development After Birth

Psychological stress, nutrition/malnutrition

Hormones

Chemical substances sent through the bloodstream transporting instructions from one part of the body to the other

Endocrine System

System of glands that produces hormones

Puberty

Period in which children attain adult size and adult physical characteristics, including sexual maturity; marked by the activation of the HPG system and adrenarche; timing related to depression, body image issues, risk-taking, self-esteem, social challenges

HPG System

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal system

Adrenarche

Onset of androgen production

Primary Sexual Characteristics

Characteristics associated directly with reproduction

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Characteristics developed in puberty that signal sexual maturity, unrelated to reproductive organs

Physical Changes for Males During Puberty

Enlargement of testes, pubic hair, enlargement of the penis, growth of facial and body hair, voice change, and spermarche (first ejaculation, often during sleep)

Physical Changes for Females During Puberty

Breast development, pubic hair, menarche (first menstrual period)

Secular Trend

Age of onset of puberty is going down as time goes on

Gross Motor Development

Development associated with large muscles

Fine Motor Development

Development having to do with control of the hands

Synaptogenesis

Formation of new connections; peaks in early childhood

Synaptic Pruning

Unused connections are eliminated; brain becomes more efficient

Myelination

Insulation of axons that speeds up neural transmission

Brainstem

Oldest part of the brain; controls primitive responses associated with defense and attack behavior, feeding, freezing, sexual behavior, facial expressions

Hypothalamus

Part of the brain that controls body systems by regulating hormone production