A&P chapter 3

electrolytes

ions, (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl-,OH-, HCO3-, H-)

isotonic

electrolytes help to provide an \--- environment for all cells to prevent cells from lysing

HCO3-

buffers blood, bind to excess H+ to maintain the proper pH of 7.35-7.45, also helps transport Co2

action potentials

electrolytes influence the production of \--- \---

liver

proteins are made in the \---

high

blood plasma has a \--- concentration of protein

buffers

all proteins function as \---

carriers

proteins serve as \--- for substances that are not soluble in water

Transferrin

carrier protein for iron

LDL and HDL

carry cholesterol, lipoproteins

percipitate

proteins carry steroid hormones because if they did not the steroids would \--- in blood

clotting factors I-XIII

promote homeostasis, generally inactive but activate quickly

hereditary hemophilia

associated with the lack of factors VIII

vitamin K

helps the liver synthesize clotting factors

uarfarin

blocks Vitamin K leading to reduced blood clotting

inactive

proteins are always available in plasma in \--- form

Ca2+

proteins require \--- for blood clots

Anti-coagulants

Prevents blood from clotting

immunoglobulins

antibodies that defend the body against foreign agents

greater

the osmolarity of plasma must be \--- than that of ISF because of the large proteins in the plasma

Osmolarity

total concentration of all solute particles in a solution

water

\--- is almost all drawn back into capillaries after being pushed out by blood pressure because of the proteins in plasma

localized inflammation

water is not drawn back into capillaries when there is \--- \--- because of increased permeability in the capillaries allowing proteins to leave the bloodstream

swelling

when plasma accumulates in interstitial space between body cells

nutrients

used as building blocks for cells to synthesize new biomolecules and for energy

dissolved gases

in blood plasma, O2, CO2, N2

proteins

kidneys remove worn-out \--- with amino groups

hemoglobin

breaks down into hemo, globin, and iron

amino acids

globin is transported by \--- then recycled

bilirubin

hemo is transported to the liver by \---

Transferin

transports iron to be recycled

removers

excess waste in bloodstream means waste \--- are not working

spontaneously

unlike skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells \--- depolarize

leaky

the heart has \--- Na+ channels

wave

once the enough Na+ leaks in to the cardiac muscle, the channels will open and a \--- of depolarization will travel across the muscle fiber

gap junctions

cardiac muscle cells transmit APs to their neighbors by \--- \--- located at the intercalated discs

SA node

the Na+ channels are especially leaky in the \--- \---

300 msec

cardiac muscle twitch time

slowly

cardiac muscle cell PMs repolarize very \---

Ca2+ channels

the slowed repolarization is due to the \--- \--- opening when the K+ channels open making it take longer to go from -40mV to -70mV

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated, cannot polarize or contract, creates a forced rest period

tetanic contraction

sustained contraction, prevented by refractory period, means there cannot be fibrillation leads to uncoordinated depolarization

refractory

the longer twitches in cardiac muscle allow for the \--- period

troponin

Ca2+ also binds to \--- which moves tropomyosin away from myosin-binding sites on actin, so contraction can occur

\[K+]

unless there is a high \--- outside the cell, Ca2+ channels close and K+ channels open wider to allow for repolarization

Ca2+

cardiac muscle fibers can contract more or less depending on the amount of \-- that diffuses into them

there would not be enough time for the refractory period

if cardiac muscle has 50 msec twitches what would happen?

anesthetic, succinylchlorine, KCl

3 parts of the lethal injection

hyperpolarization of neurons

in the lethal injection, the anesthetic is a barbiturate that influence GABA receptors and cause a Cl- influx this leads to the \--- \-- \---, this means the convict will feel no pain

skeletal muscle contractions

2nd part of lethal injection, succinylcholine is an acetylcholine antagonist (stops Ach), this results in no \--- \--- \---

heart

KCl is the part of the lethal injection that affect the \---

\[K+]

KCl creates an increase in \--- in ISF

double unit

in the heart there are no motor units, the heart contracts as a \--- \---

originates

the action potential of the hear \--- in the SA node, but does not move straight from the right atrium to the left ventricle

coordinate

the heart needs to \--- contraction

atrioventricular bundle, all

to coordinate contractions the action potential is carried rather slowly through the \--- \--- in the interventricular septum to the apex of the heart, and upward from there through \--- the cells of both ventricles simulatneously

EKG

(electrocardiogram) instrument used in measuring the electrical potential during a heartbeat

electrical currents

the movement of electrically-charged ions in large groups of cardiac muscle cells simultaneously creates \--- \--- which can be detected even at the surface of the body creating the EKG tracing

P wave

current produced by depolarization of the atria

QRS complex

caused by depolarization of both the ventricles

T wave

is current created by the diffusion of K+ ions during repolarization of ventricles (forced rest period)

QRS, P wave

a heart attack in the interventricular sectum will show no \--- because the action potential can't travel down to the ventricles, this causes a continuous \-- \--- until ventricles depolarize

heart function

regulation on \--- \--- \= regulation of cardiac output

Cardiac Output (CO)

heart rate (HR) x stroke volume (SV)\=

cardiac output

The volume of blood pumped per minute, depends on how fast its beating and on how much it pushes out with each beat

SA node

dictates heart rate

100 bpm

intrinsic heart rate of SA node cells, this is not the rate at rest which means that the breaks are always on

70 bpm

average heart rate at rest

SNS, PSNS, regulation of BP, emotions, blood pH, and [NA+] and [K+]

factors that influence heart rate

norepinephrine, spontaneous depolarization

sympathetic nervous system neurons release \--- onto SA node cells increasing the Na+ leak in cells, causing increase in heart rate by increasing the rate of \--- \---

Acytlycholine

parasympathetic nervous system neurons release \--- and have the opposite effect as the sympathetic nervous system, causes K+ to leak out of cells

reflex arcs

regulate blood pressure

Baroreceptors

detect changes in blood pressure by the degree of stretching, in the walls of the aorta and carotid arteries

aneurism

when there is too much stretching in a blood vessel causing the vessel to eventually break

cardioregulatory center

part of medulla oblongata that regulates heart beat rate, receives and interprets action potentials from the baroreceptors, an autonomic reflex

vagus nerve

if blood pressure is too high, an action potential is sent to via the \--- \--- to the SA node to decrease heart rate

Chemoreceptors

in aorta and carotid walls detect CO2 which correlates with blood pH

SNS, [Ca+], preload, afterload, respiratory pump

factors that influence stroke volume

adrenalin

is secreted by the sympathetic nervous system and causes all cardiac muscle cells to contract via the blood stream

strength

\[Ca+] in blood/ISF influences the \--- of contraction

preload

how much blood is is forced into the ventricles from the atria, more in more out and vise versa

dilated arterioles

skeletal muscle activity can increase preload by squeezing blood out of \--- \--- in skeletal muscles back into the bloodstream

widespread

decrease in blood volume due to \--- inflammation or bleeding can decrease preload

increases

lying down \--- preload -\> increase in SV and in CO

afterload

The force or resistance against which the heart pumps, often due to high pressure throughout the circulatory system

respiratory pump

exhale, lungs squeeze out air and blood, leads to increased preload and SV

heart attack

if workload is greater than oxygen supply hypoxia or ischemia will occur resulting in a \--- \---

flow

blood pressure drives blood \---

slows, oxygen

when blood pressure drops blood flow \---, cells die from lack of \---

hypoxia

lack of oxygen

edema, afterload

when blood pressure rises, the body experiences \---, excessive \--- and other problems

edema

caused by excessive bp, op isn't high enough to get blood back in

SV

excessive overload causes decrease in \---, and CO, and blood flow

hypertrophy

excessive overload can cause \--- which leads to an increase in cardiac muscle size, but if there is not enough oxygen supply can lead to a heart attack

systolic pressure

pressure in brachial arteries when left ventricle contracts, the top number when measuring bp

maximum

systolic pressure is the \--- pressure artery walls must withstand

rises

systolic pressure normally \--- throughout life, for young people rest is 120 mmHg

decreasing

systolic pressure wave travels through the arteries, \---- the farther it travels and is the pulse felt where arteries are located near the body's surface

diastolic pressure

pressure remaining in arteries when left ventricle has completed contraction, aortic semilunar valve closes because walls of large elastic arteries are recoiling, bottom of bp fraction

pulse pressure

difference between systolic and diastolic pressure, usually 40 mmHg