Biology Review: Respiratory, Circulatory, Genetics, Biodiversity, Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering the respiratory and circulatory systems, blood components, heart function, genetics (Mendelian and non-Mendelian), blood types, sex-linked inheritance, biodiversity concepts, environmental issues, photosynthesis, and cellular respiration. Each card defines a key term to aid exam preparation.

Oxygen

The gas the body needs to function; used in cellular respiration to produce ATP; absorbed into the blood via the lungs.

Carbon Dioxide

The waste gas produced by cellular respiration and expelled from the body.

Breathing

The mechanical process of moving air in and out of the lungs.

Inspiration (Inhalation)

Breathing in; the diaphragm and chest muscles contract to enlarge the chest cavity.

Expiration (Exhalation)

Breathing out; the diaphragm relaxes, reducing chest cavity size and pushing air out.

Pons and Medulla Oblongata

Brain regions that regulate the rhythm and depth of breathing.

External Respiration

Gas exchange between air in the lungs and the blood.

Internal Respiration

Gas exchange between blood and body tissues.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells use oxygen to make ATP and release carbon dioxide as a waste product.

Nose

Entry point for air; contains hairs and mucosa to filter, warm, and moisten air.

Nasal Cavity

Air-filled space behind the nose; lined with cilia and mucus to trap particles.

Cilia

Tiny hair-like structures that filter and move mucus and debris.

Mouth/Oral Cavity

Alternate entry for air; less filtered than the nose.

Pharynx

The throat; passageway for air to the trachea and for food to the esophagus.

Epiglottis

Flap of cartilage that prevents food from entering the windpipe during swallowing.

Larynx (Voice Box)

Air passageway that contains vocal cords and helps expel foreign objects via coughing.

Trachea

Windpipe; a tube with cilia that filters air and keeps it open with cartilage rings.

Bronchi

Two main branches of the trachea that lead to the lungs; divide into smaller bronchi.

Bronchioles

Smaller airways within the lungs that branch from the bronchi.

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs where gas exchange with capillaries occurs; surrounded by capillaries.

Capillaries

Tiny blood vessels where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged with tissues.

Diaphragm

A large muscle that drives breathing by changing chest cavity pressure.

Chronic Bronchitis

Long-term inflammation of the bronchial tubes causing coughing and mucus.

Emphysema

Lung condition where air sacs (alveoli) are damaged, hindering gas exchange.

Asthma

Chronic inflammatory disease of the airways with variable symptoms and obstruction.

Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

Blood cells that carry oxygen and carbon dioxide with hemoglobin.

White Blood Cells (WBCs)

Blood cells responsible for fighting infection and immunity.

Monocytes

A type of WBC that helps combat bacteria and inflammation.

Lymphocytes

WBCs that produce antibodies and defend against infections.

Neutrophils

The most numerous WBCs; first line of defense against infections.

Basophils

WBCs that release histamine and other chemicals during immune responses.

Eosinophils

WBCs that combat parasites and modulate allergic responses.

Platelets

Blood cells that help with clotting to prevent bleeding.

Plasma

The liquid portion of blood; carries cells, nutrients, and wastes.

Blood Vessels

Network of vessels that transport blood throughout the body.

Arteries

Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart; thick, muscular walls.

Aorta

The largest artery; distributes oxygen-rich blood to the body.

Pulmonary Artery

Carries blood from the heart to the lungs for gas exchange.

Veins

Blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart.

Inferior Vena Cava

Large vein that returns blood from the lower body to the heart.

Superior Vena Cava

Large vein that returns blood from the upper body to the heart.

Pulmonary Vein

Brings oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart.

Capillaries (Blood Capillaries)

Small vessels where exchange with tissues occurs.

Heart

The muscular organ that pumps blood through the circulatory system.

Left Atrium

Upper left chamber that receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs.

Right Atrium

Upper right chamber that receives oxygen-poor blood from the body.

Left Ventricle

Lower left chamber that pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body.

Right Ventricle

Lower right chamber that pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.

Pulmonary Valve

Valve preventing backflow from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle.

Aortic Valve

Valve preventing backflow from the aorta into the left ventricle.

Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve

Valve between the left atrium and left ventricle.

Tricuspid Valve

Valve between the right atrium and right ventricle.

Pulmonary Circulation

Movement of blood from the heart to the lungs and back.

Systemic Circulation

Movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body.

Coronary Circulation

Blood supply to the heart muscle itself.

Blood Pressure

The force of blood against artery walls; recorded as systolic/diastolic.

Systole

Phase when the heart ventricles contract and pump blood.

Diastole

Phase when the heart ventricles relax and fill with blood.

Systolic Pressure

Maximum arterial pressure during heart contraction.

Diastolic Pressure

Minimum arterial pressure during heart relaxation.

Cardiac Cycle

Sequence of heart activities from one heartbeat to the next.

Sphygmomanometer

Instrument used to measure blood pressure.

Stethoscope

Instrument used to listen to heart sounds when measuring BP.

Coronary Heart Disease

Blockage or reduced blood flow to the heart muscle.

Atherosclerosis

Plaque buildup in arteries that narrows or blocks blood flow.

Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)

Persistent elevation of blood pressure above normal.

Heart Attack

Stoppage of blood flow to part of the heart muscle.

Stroke

Brain injury caused by interrupted blood flow.

Leukemia

Abnormal white blood cell production that can crowd out other cells.

Alleles

Different forms of a gene that control a trait.

Trait

A inherited characteristic that can be passed to offspring.

Dominant

Allele that is expressed when present, often masks recessive.

Recessive

Allele that is masked by a dominant allele in a heterozygote.

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an individual (the alleles carried).

Phenotype

Observable physical or physiological traits of an organism.

Homozygous

Two identical alleles for a gene (AA or aa).

Heterozygous

Two different alleles for a gene (Aa).

Punnett Square

A diagram used to predict possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring.

Law of Dominance

In heterozygotes, dominant allele masks the recessive.

Law of Independent Assortment

Genes on different chromosomes are inherited independently.

Law of Segregation

During gamete formation, paired alleles separate.

Incomplete Dominance

Heterozygote displays a blended phenotype between two homozygotes.

Codominance

Heterozygote expresses both alleles equally (both traits visible).

Multiple Alleles

More than two allele variants control a trait in a population.

Blood Type Antigens

Antigens on RBCs that determine ABO blood groups.

Antibody

Protein that binds specific antigens to help immune defense.

Isoagglutinogen

Antigenic determinant on RBCs that defines blood type A, B, AB, or O.

Blood Type A

Genotype IAIA or IAi; antigen A on RBCs; anti-B antibodies.

Blood Type B

Genotype IBIB or IBi; antigen B on RBCs; anti-A antibodies.

Blood Type AB

Genotype IAIB; both A and B antigens on RBCs; no anti-A or anti-B antibodies.

Blood Type O

Genotype ii; neither A nor B antigens; antibodies against A and B.

Antigen

Substance that triggers an antibody response (often on RBCs).

Sex-Linked Traits

Traits controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes.

Gametes

Reproductive cells (egg and sperm) that unite to form a zygote.

Sex Chromosomes

Chromosomes that determine sex (XX for female, XY for male in humans).

X-Linked Dominant Inheritance

Mutations on the X chromosome affecting both sexes; affected males pass to daughters; affected females pass to both.

X-Linked Recessive Inheritance

Mutations on the X chromosome; typically affects males; no father-to-son transmission.

Y-Linked Inheritance

Traits on the Y chromosome; passed from father to son only.

Color Blindness

X-linked condition where color discrimination is impaired (often red/green).

Hemophilia

X-linked disorder where blood does not clot properly due to missing clotting factor.