Personality & Social Psychology Final

PSYC6392 University of Kent Stage 2 Personality and Social Psychology

ideographic approach

A strategy of focusing on studying the many unique details of an individual's personality, aiming for nuanced and unique information about a person’s behaviour.

nomothetic approach

A strategy focusing on general laws and principles across populations, aiming for broad generalisations about behaviour.

Reliability

The extent to which the way a variable is measured is likely to yield consistent results.

Construct validity

The extent to which a test measures the thing it claims to be measuring.

Content Validity

The degree to which a test accurately samples the content it is intended to measure.

Criterion Validity

The degree to which a test correlates with a specific criterion or outcome, assessing its effectiveness in predicting performance.

Internal-Consistency Reliability

The degree to which different items of a test measure the same construct, ensuring that similar items yield consistent responses.

Interrater (Interobserver) Reliability

The degree to which different observers or raters provide consistent ratings or evaluations of the same phenomenon, ensuring reliability across different assessors.

Test-Retest Reliability

The degree to which test scores remain consistent when the same test is administered to the same group of people at different times, indicating stability over time.

Reverse-Coding

A method used in surveys and assessments where certain items are phrased negatively to check for consistency in responses and ensure that all items are understood properly.

Self-Report Scale

A type of assessment where individuals evaluate their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviours, often using structured questions or ratings.

Observer Report

A method of assessment in which information about an individual's behaviour is collected through observations made by others, often used to gain external insights into the person's traits or actions.

Big 5 Personality Traits

A widely recognised model in psychology that identifies five major dimensions of personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Facets of Openness to Experience

Intellect, Imagination, Perceptiveness, Activity, Adventure, Aesthetics

Facets of Conscientiousness

Competence, Orderliness, Fidelity, Industriousness, Achieving, Decisiveness

Facets of Extraversion

Activity, Sociability, Assertiveness, Emotional Stability, Thrill-Seeking, Enthusiasm

Facets of Agreeableness

Trust, Warmth, Straightforwardness, Altruism, Compliance, Modesty

Facets of Neuroticism

Anxiety, Hostility, Depression, Self-Consciousness, Impulsivity, Vulnerability

How do neurotransmitters effect personality?

Neurotransmitters regulating mood, emotions, and behaviour through chemical signalling in the brain. Variants in neurotransmitter levels, such as serotonin and dopamine, can manifest in personality traits like extraversion or neuroticism.

How do brain structures effect personality?

Brain structures influence personality by regulating emotions, behavior, and cognitive processes. Areas such as the prefrontal cortex and amygdala play vital roles in decision-making, impulse control, and emotional responses.

How do hormones effect personality?

Hormones influence personality by regulating physiological processes related to mood, behaviour, and cognition. Fluctuations in hormone levels, such as cortisol and testosterone, can impact stress reactivity, dominance, and social behaviour. Hormones can exert long-term effects on brain structure and function, shaping personality traits.

Major Brain Systems (Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory)

The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), the Behavioural Activation System (BAS), and the Fight/Flight/Freeze System (FFFS)

Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)

A psychological system in the brain that regulates behaviour, particularly in response to potential threats or punishments. It is associated with increased anxiety and avoidance behaviours. It inhibits ongoing behaviour, increases arousal, and focuses attention on potential threats.

Behavioural Activation System (BAS)

A psychological system in the brain that regulates behaviour, particularly in response to potential rewards or positive stimuli. It is associated with increased motivation and approach behaviours. It encourages individuals to seek out and engage with rewarding opportunities, leading to goal-directed behaviour and positive emotions.

Fight/Flight/Freeze System (FFFS)

A psychological system in the brain that regulates behaviour in response to immediate and severe threats. This system is associated with fear and panic responses and is crucial for survival in dangerous situations.

Cloninger’s Psychobiological Model of Temperment and Character

A comprehensive theory of personality that integrates genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors to explain individual differences in behaviour and emotional responses. The model proposes that personality is composed of two main domains: temperament and character.

Introversion

Personality trait favouring internal stimuli over external.

Personality

Differences among individuals in their typical style of behaving, thinking, and feeling across situations and across time

Mental Ability

Differences among people in their maximum performance in producing correct answers to various problems and questions

The Rational Voter Model

A theoretical model in political science positing that voters make decisions based on a rational calculation of their own self-interest. It assumes that voters assess information, weigh costs and benefits, and choose the candidate or policy that maximizes their expected utility.

expressive utility

The gratification voters receive from expressing their values and beliefs through their vote, regardless of the outcome.

Ambivalent Sexism

Two distinct but interrelated components: hostile sexism and benevolent sexism.

Hostile Sexism

Overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about women, viewing women as inferior, irrational, and seeking to usurp men's power.

Benevolent Sexism

A subtle form of prejudice characterised by subjectively positive and affectionate, but ultimately patronising, attitudes towards women. It idealises women and reinforces traditional gender roles.

The Myth of Racial Progress

This concept refers to the false or misleading idea that societies are inevitably moving toward greater racial equality and justice. It suggests that historical advancements and legal reforms have eradicated systemic racism, ignoring persistent racial disparities and inequalities that continue to exist.

risk aversion

in decision making, the greater weight given to possible losses than possible gains

temporal discounting

in decision making, the greater weight given to the present over the future

omission bias

the tendency to take whatever course of action does not require you to do any-thing (also called the default option)

social cognition

a movement in social psychology that began in the 1970s that focused on thoughts about people and about social relationships

automatic thinking

Thought processes that occur unintentionally, involuntarily, and without conscious awareness.

Priming

The phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how a person‬ responds to a subsequent, related stimulus, often without conscious awareness.‬

Framing Effect

Being influenced by how information is presented (e.g., positive vs.‬‭ negative framing).‬

Internal (Dispositional) Attributions

Explaining behaviour based on an individual's‬ personality, traits, or character.

External (Situational) Attributions

Explaining behaviour based on external factors, such as‬ the environment or circumstances

heuristic

mental shortcuts that provide quick estimates about the likelihood of uncertain events

availability heuristic

the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

representativeness heuristic

the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the extent to which it resembles the typical case

simulation heuristic

the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which you can imagine (or mentally simulate) it

base rate fallacy

the tendency to ignore or underuse base rate information and instead to be influenced by the distinctive features of the case being judged

first instinct fallacy

the false belief that it is better not to change one’s first answer on a test even if one starts to think that a different answer is correct

planning fallacy

the tendency for plans to be overly optimistic because the planner fails to allow for unexpected problems

 Conjunction Fallacy

Overestimating the probability of two events occurring‬ together compared to either event occurring alone.‬

Gambler's Fallacy

Believing that a random event is more or less likely to occur‬‭ based on previous events in a sequence.‬

‭ Sunk Cost Fallacy

Continuing to invest resources in a failing endeavour because of‬ previous investments, rather than evaluating the current situation objectively.‬

‭ Anchoring Bias

Over-relying on an initial piece of information (the "anchor")‬ when making subsequent judgments, even if the anchor is irrelevant.‬

‭ Confirmation Bias

Favouring information that confirms pre-existing beliefs and‬‭ ignoring information that contradicts them.‬

Halo Effect

Allowing a positive impression in one area to influence overall‬ judgments about a person or thing.‬

‭Bandwagon Effect

Following the opinions or actions of the majority, even if they‬‭ are not well-founded.

Negativity Bias

the tendency for negative events and information to have a greater impact‬‭ on our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours than positive ones of equal magnitude.

 Loss Aversion

Feeling the pain of a loss more strongly than the pleasure of an‬‭ equivalent gain.‬

Optimism Bias

Believing that one has more control over outcomes than one‬ actually does.‬

Illusion of Control

Believing that one has more control over outcomes than one‬‭ actually does.‬

emotion

a conscious evaluative reaction that is clearly linked to some event

mood

a feeling state that is not clearly linked to some event

affect

the automatic response that something is good (positive affect) or bad (negative affect)

arousal

a physiological reaction, including faster heartbeat and faster or heavier breathing, linked to most conscious emotions

Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

the idea that emotion has two components: a bodily state of arousal and a cognitive label that specifies the emotion

James-Lange theory of emotion

the idea that the bodily processes of emotion come first and the mind’s perception o these bodily reactions then creates the subjective feeling of emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

the idea that emotional experiences and physiological responses occur simultaneously and independently, rather than one causing the other

guilt

An unpleasant moral emotion associated with a specific instance in which one has acted badly or wrongly

shame

a moral emotion that, like guilt, involves feeling bad but, unlike guilt, spreads to the whole person

passionate love (romantic love)

strong feelings of longing, desire, and excitement toward a special person

companionate love (affectionate love)

mutual understanding and caring to make the relationship succeed

secure attachment

style of attachment in which people are low on anxiety and low on avoidance; they trust their partners, share their feelings, provide and receive support and comfort, and enjoy their relationships

preoccupied (anxious/ambivalent) attachment

style of attachment in which people are low on avoidance but high on anxiety; they want and enjoy closeness but worry that their relationship partners will abandon them

dismissing avoidant attachment

style of attachment in which people are low on anxiety but high on avoidance; they tend to view partners as unreliable, unavailable, and uncaring

fearful avoidant attachment

style of attachment in which people have both high anxiety and high avoidance; they have low opinions of themselves and keep others from getting close

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

proposes that individuals derive part of their identity from the social groups they belong to, and that these group memberships shape their self-concept and self-esteem

social categorisation

The process of sorting people into groups on the basis of the characteristics they have in common (e.g., race, gender, age, religion, sexual orientation)

social identification

The process by which individuals adopt the norms, values, and beliefs of a social group, internalizing the group's identity as part of their own self-concept.

social comparison

Comparing our in-groups with other groups (out-groups),‬ often with a favourable bias toward our group. People are motivated to obtain a‬ positive social identity through positive intergroup comparisons.

minimal groups paradigm

An experimental manipulation that tests the effects of mere categorisation on behaviour

prejudice

a negative feeling toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group

social cure hypothesis

the idea that strong social connections and identification with groups can positively impact an individual's well-being and mental health

Benefits of Belonging to Groups

Interdependence and Achievement‬, Social Support‬, Sense of Belonging‬, and Self-Esteem‬

Costs of Belonging to Groups

The Black Sheep Effect‬, Ostracism, Pressure to Conform, Deindividuation, Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination‬

black sheep effect

the tendency to evaluate disreputable or disliked individuals more negatively when they are a member of one’s own group (in-group) rather than of another group (out-group)

“hidden profile problem”

when groups making decisions focus on information‬ that is shared among all members rather than on information that is uniquely held by‬ different individuals

organisational identity

individuals categorising themselves in relation to the‬‭ organisation, identifying with the organisation, and‬‭ comparing their organisation with other organisations

moral reasoning

social intuitionist model

a theory that proposes that moral judgment is primarily driven by quick, automatic intuitions (moral feelings) rather than by conscious reasoning

Dual Process Model

A model that advocates for two processes leading to a psychological outcome

Moral Foundations Theory

Theory asserting that there are five key moral foundations against which we can judge a person’s behaviour (harm/care, fairness, ingroup loyalty, authority and purity).

Penner’s multi-level model

A psychological framework that explains helping behaviour by examining influences at three levels: Micro, Meso, and Macro

The “meso” level

This level focuses on the study of helper-recipient dyads within the‬ context of a specific situation. Research at this level examines helping at the interpersonal‬‭ level, where one person helps another.‬

The “micro” level

This level is concerned with the origins of prosocial tendencies in humans‬ (e.g., neural or evolutionary bases) and the aetiology of individual differences in these‬ tendencies.‬

The “macro” level

This level focuses on prosocial actions that occur within the context of‬ groups and large organisations (e.g., volunteering, cooperation).‬

Altruism

An action that is performed to benefit a person without benefiting the self

The Decision Model of Bystander Intervention

This model proposes a series of decisions an‬ individual makes that determine whether they will intervene, which can be seen as a form‬ of cooperation in a broader context. This involves recognising the situation, deciding to‬ take personal responsibility, and deciding how to help.

Volunteer Process Model

This model emphasises‬ intrapersonal variables like motives, prosocial dispositions, social support,‬‭ satisfaction, and integration with the organisation in maintaining volunteering.‬