APHG: Unit 6 Cumulative Set, Services & Urban Development

inner cities

inner cities

the regions just outside CBDs in North American cities

culture of poverty

a way of living that reflects a lack of income and accumulated wealth
- large % of income spent on housing
- possible homelessness
- lack of political power--attendance of inadequately funded schools
- living far from places with entry-level jobs (usually expensive to live near those places)
- difficulty getting credit

underclass

a group of people for whom poverty persists year after year and across generations

brownfields

contaminated industrial or commercial sites that may require environmental cleanup before they can be redeveloped or expanded

redlining

A process by which banks draw lines on a map and refuse to lend money to purchase or improve property within the boundaries.

Has been used as a method of racial discrimination in the past

urban development

renovating a site within a city by removing the existing landscape and rebuilding from the ground up

eminent domain

the right of a government or its agent to expropriate ("buy"/take) private property for public use, with payment of compensation

gentrification

the process of wealthier residents moving into neighborhoods and making them unaffordable for existing residents (increased housing quality)
- value increases and TAX VALUES increase; so does RENT
- makes it difficult for low-income residents and older people on fixed incomes to afford

EX: San Francisco, Chicago's Winter Park

rent control

a price ceiling placed on apartment rent (used in NYC and Denver)

housing projects

The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965, part of the War on Poverty, channeled increased federal funds to public housing, but the low-cost developments ended up concentrating poverty and stimulating crime.

scattered site

site in which dwellings (low-cost housing projects) are dispersed throughout the city rather than clustered in a large project

homelessness

the condition of not having a permanent place to live
*<b>Used to be primarily men in the US, but it affects a growing number of women and children</b>*

food deserts

urban zones that lack food stores and contribute to health problems for poorer urban residents

racial segregation in housing

when people live in separate neighborhoods based on their ethnicity or race

blockbusting

people of one ethnic group, usually middle-class whites, would be frightened into selling their homes at low prices when they heard that a family of another group, usually African American or Hispanic, was moving into the neighborhood
- investors would profit by buying houses at low prices and reselling them for more money
- real estate agents would profit from a flurry of transactions

ghettos

areas of poverty occupied by a minority group as a result of discrimination

ethnic enclaves/urban colonies

locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity
EX: US cities called "Chinatown," "little Italy," and "Greektown"

groups most likely to gentrify

1. young urban professionals with spare &&& ("yuppies"--YUP= young, urban, professional)
2. older couples whose children have moved out ("empty nesters")

gated communities

fenced-in neighborhoods with controlled access gates for people and automobiles and rules for community aesthetics (looks--like housing, landscaping, etc.)

public transportation

buses, subways, light rail, and trains operated by a government agency

informal economy

the portion of the economy that is not taxed, managed, regulated by government.

shadow economy

the informal economy in more developed countries

urban canyons

Streets lined with tall buildings can channel and intensify wind. They also prevent natural sunlight form reaching the ground.

urban heat island

a portion of a city warmer than surrounding regions

urban wildlife

Rats, raccoons, and pigeons can thrive in cities, but they can spread diseases and be a nuisance to people.

rush hour

the commuting periods in early morning and in late afternoon or early evening when many people travel to and from work

urban sprawl

the rapid spread of development outward from the inner city

leapfrogging

when developers purchase land beyond the periphery of the city's built-up area

greenbelts

(in European cities) undeveloped area neighboring an urban area, often protected from development by planning law

smart growth

in the US, a set of polities to preserve farmland and other open, undeveloped areas near a city

New Urbanism

an urban planning movement invented to reduce sprawl, increase affordable housing, and create vibrant, livable neighborhoods--> largely walkable and mixed-use
- emerged in 1990s
- EX: Celebration, FL; Seacrest, FL

urban infill

the process of building up underused lands within a city
- opposite of leapfrogging
- cities have vacant areas of varying sizes
EX: Civita, CA

exurbanism/counter-urbanization/de-urbanization

the flow of residents moving from cities beyond the suburbs, usually to urban areas

three types of services

consumer, business, public

consumer services

- About 50% of all US jobs
-Businesses that provide services primarily to individual consumers, including retail services and education, health, and leisure services

business services

- 25% of all US jobs
- Services that primarily meet the needs of other businesses, including professional, financial, and transportation services

FIRE services

finance, insurance, real estate

public services

- About 10% of all US jobs
- Services offered by the government to provide security and protection for citizens and businesses.

service sector...

triggered recession in 2008

speculation

An involvement in risky business transactions in an effort to make a quick or large profit.

recession

a period of temporary economic decline during which trade and industrial activity are reduced, generally identified by a fall in GDP in two successive quarters.

Central Place Theory (Christaller)

A theory that explains the distribution of services, based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market areas for services; larger settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements and provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther.

Brian Berry

geographer who noticed central place theory occuring in the US Midwest

central place (node)

A market center for the exchange of services by people attracted from the surrounding area.

market area (hinterland)

The area surrounding a central place, from which people are attracted to use the place's goods and services.

range

The maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service.

levels of market area

hamlet, village, town, city

periodic markets

When small vendors from all around meet up at a certain location to sell goods sometimes weekly and sometimes annually (Farmers Market)

offshore financial services

Offer low tax rates and privacy laws for wealthy corporations and individuals

business-process outsourcing

relocating an entire business function to an independent service provider--> insurance claims processing, payroll management, transcription work, billing of credit cards, shipments, technical inquiries like repairs

Former colonies frequently used for business process outsourcing

- India, Malaysia, Phillippines
- Because of ability to speak English due to history of British and American colonial rule

Chicago, Los Angeles, NYC, San Francisco

specialize in general business

Boston and San Jose

2 examples of computing and data processing services specializing areas in the U.S.

Austin, Orlando, and Raleigh-Durham

specialize in high-tech industries and support services

Alburquerque, Colorado Springs, Huntsville, Knoxville, and Norfolk

specialize in military activity and support services

Washington, DC

specializes in management-consulting services

Richard Florida

Said that talent clusters in cities based on cultural factors, not economic factors.

two types of rural settlement distributions

1. clustered
2. dispersed

clustered rural settlement types

1. circular
2. linear (French long-lot)

Latin America

Typically, the more urbanized a region, the more developed it is. The exception to this rule is _______________________________________.

Wirth's 3 characteristics of urban life

1. large size
2. high density
3. socially heterogeneous people

social heterogeneity

(AKA diversity); VARIETY of people in urban settlements means more individual freedom for inhabitants (ex/unusual professions, sexual orientations, cultural interests are more tolerated in urban areas)

functional zonation

division of a city into different regions or zones for certain purposes or functions

Central Business District (CBD)

the commercial heart of a city; often located near the physical center of a city or the crossroads where the city was founded

bid-rent

An economic theory that refers to how the price and demand on real estate changes as the distance towards the Central Business District (CBD) increases.

CBD Characteristics

1. skyscrapers and underground cities that might include shopping, parking, rapid transit (US and Canada)
2. Located in the historic heart of the city where buildings are lower but services are still concentrated (Europe)
3. Manufacturing activities are rare because land value is so high
4. high-density housing in residential areas--high-rise apts, usually expensive

Concentric Zone Model (Burgess Model)

- series of rings that surrounds a CBD
- proposed by _______ in the 1920s to describe Chicago
- series of rings that surrounds a CBD
- first ring around CBD--zone of transition (industrial uses mixed with poorer quality housing)
- Second ring= low-cost residential ("working class" housing)
- Third ring=moderate-cost residential (higher quality housing)
- Fourth ring= commuters' zone (larger homes and lots in suburban areas on the edge of the city)

Sector Model (Hoyt Model)

- Proposed by _______ in the 1930s to describe Chicago
-Described how different types of land use and housing were all located near the CBD early in a city's history. Each grew outward as the city expanded, creating wedges (sectors) of land use rather than rings
- Describes sectors of low, medium, and high income housing.
- Notes a sector for transportation extending from the edge to the center of the city.
- Places low-income housing next to industrial/transport zones
- Places high-income housing in a wedge extending away from other zones along with a wide tree-lined boulevard or on higher ground (hill, etc.)

Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris & Ullman

Proposed by _________________ in the 1940s to describe Chicago.

- Suggested that functional zonation occurred around multiple centers or nodes
- Each node either attracted or repelled certain types of activities.
- RESULT: A city with a patchwork of land uses, each with its own center or nucleus (possibly multiple CBDs)
CBD and related functions continued to exist
- Were joined by smaller business districts that emerged in the suburbs
- Zone of industry→ variety of possible locations

- University or business park: attract nearby restaurants, theaters, other amenities; people might create a district of student housing or high-quality homes nearby

Galactic City Model (Chauncey Harris)

- Proposed in 1950s by ___________ to describe Detroit
- Created after suburban growth skyrocketed as governments built highways that improved transportation in and out of cities
- Describes the spread of US cities outward from the CBD to the suburbs leaving a declining inner city
- Developes EDGE CITIES: Nodes of economic activity that have developed in the periphery of large cities. They usually have tall office buildings, a concentration of retail shops, relatively few residents, and are located at the junction of major transportation routes: mini-downtowns

edge cities

nodes of economic activity that have developed in the periphery of large cities

*<b>ALSO DEVELOP IN URBAN REALMS MODEL</b>*

Latin American City Model (Griffin-Ford Model)

- Two-part CBD at the center of the city (Traditional market center next to modern high-rise center)
- High-quality housing (starts next to CBD, extends outward from urban core)
- Spine of commercial development (goes through the middle of the high-quality housing area;
theaters, restaurants parks, and other amenities; ends in a growing secondary center or "mall")
- As distance from city center increases, housing quality decreases (public transportation, urban water supply, access to electricity→ decrease)
- Outer ring of the city: periferico (poverty, lack of infrastructure, areas of poorly built housing: shantytowns: Residents are often recent migrants)

European Cities Model

- Descendents of medieval & preindustrial cities
- City walls for protection→ restrained growth
- Grew very slowly for centuries→ very little planning
- Dense mix of commercial and residential land use
- Narrow, winding streets
- Difficult to find distinct land-use zones
- Later urban renovations

Eastern European City Model

- A historic center that is fairly unchanged with elite residential and industrial centers around the periphery of the city.
- Retail centers near the historic center help expand the city centers role as a tourist destination.

African City Model

- Rare to have large cities until 19th century European colonization
- Growing rapidly in recent decades
- Identifiable zones
1. Traditional CBD
2. Colonial CBD
3. Informal economy zone
4. Zone of mining and manufacturing
5. Residential zones: often based on ethnicity

Middle Eastern and Islamic City Model (North Africa, parts of Spain & E Africa and a bit of SE Asia)

- Shaped by the spread of Islam
- Central mosque
- Defensive citadel: a fort designed to protect the city with its palace and barracks for soldiers
- Residential Neighborhoods: Reflect differences in ethnicity, tribe, or branch of Islam
Three features of neighborhoods
Streets and alleys twisting with frequent dead-ends
Homes have central courtyards rather than front or back yards
Windows are small and located above eye level
THESE ALL CREATE SHADE (hot regions) & PRIVACY (Islamic culture)

Southeast Asian City Model (McGee Model)

- Describes the land use in many of the larger cities in SE Asia
- Former colonial port zone
- Might include a governmental zone
- Commercial zone dominated by foreign merchants and ambassadors (if a capital)
- Belt of market gardening surrounds the city

*<b>History of Chinese immigration--huge Chinese influence</b>*

urban planning

a process of promoting growth and controlling change in land use

zoning laws

laws in a city or town that designate certain areas, or zones, for residential and business use

residential zones

the areas of a city devoted to where people live rather than to commercial or industrial functions

McMansions

Homes referred to as such because of their "super size" and similarity in appearance to other such homes; homes often built in place of tear-downs in American suburbs.

filtering

a process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to abandonment
- usually involves splitting a larger, grand house into apartments

suburbanization of business

the movement of commerce out of cities to suburbs where rents are cheaper and commutes for employees are shorter

favelas

huge slums that surround some Brazilian cities (or other cities in Latin America)

consolidation

a solution to the legal fragmentation of many metro areas in which certain areas of government are handled jointly, across numerous separate municipalities, while other elements of local government continue to be handled by individual municipalities

special districts

a governmental area created to attempt to solve a specific need, such as for public transportation over a large region
EX: Colorado has created a regional transportation ____________, or authority, that includes Denver and surrounding areas to facilitate mass transit for the multiple communities of the region

unincorporated areas

populated regions that do not fall within the legal boundary of any city or municipality

annexation

Legally adding land area to a city in the United States

census tract

An area deliniated by the us beureau of the census for which statisitcs are published; in urbanized areas, census tracts correspond roughly to neighborhoods (4,000-12,000 people)

census block

An area bounded on all sides by visible (roads, rivers, etc.) and/or invisible (county, state boundaries) features that is the smallest geographic entity for which census data are available.

Urban Realms Model

A spatial generalization of the large, late-twentieth-century city in the United States. It is shown to be a widely dispersed, multicentered metropolis consisting of increasingly independent zones or realms, each focused on its own suburban downtown; the only exception is the shrunken central realm, which is focused on the Central Business District (CBD).

ecumene

The portion of Earth's surface occupied by permanent human settlement.

settlement

a place with a permanent human population

characteristics that allowed the development of cities

1. agricultural surplus
2. social stratification
3. job specialization

urbanization

an ongoing process that does not end once a city is formed; involves the causes and effects of existing cities that are growing ever larger

percent urban

an indicator of the proportion of the population that lives in cities and towns as compared to those that live in rural areas

suburb

a largely residential area adjacent to an urban area

suburbanization

the process of people moving, usually from cities to residential areas on the outskirts of cities

Causes of suburbanization

1. economic expansion--easier to get a home loan
2. greater purchasing power for many families ($$)
3. growth of car-centered lifestyle
4. government's construction of vast system of new highways (getting to and from work got easier)
5. US Federal Housing Administration--loans for houses in suburbs and newly-zoned single family housing there
6. GI Bill--made easier for returning veterans to get home loans and college educations
7. racial tensions (white flight)
8. pre-fabricated houses=cheaper construction

reurbanization

process in which some suburbanites return to live in the city