AP Psych 2.3-2.7

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Superrecognizers

have better than average memory for facial recognition

the 3 retention measures

• recall

• recognition

• relearning

Recall

the person must retrieve info learned earlier

• fill in the blank

Recognition

person identifies items previously learned

• multiple choice

relearning

assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

• you learn quicker the second time

Encoding

the process of getting info into the memory system 

storage

process of retaining encoded info over time

retrieval

process of getting info out of memory storage

Connectism

an info-processing model that views memories as products of interconnected neural networks 

3 stages of the Multi-Store model

• sensory memory

• short-term memory

• long-term memory

Sensory memory

the immediate, brief recording of sensory info in the memory system

Short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten (such as digits in a phone number)

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limited archive of the memory system

Working memory

a new understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory info and info retrieved from long-term memory

Maintenance rehearsal

memory storage through rehearsal over time

Elaborate rehearsal

rehearsing info in ways that promote meaning

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phronological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Phronological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

memory component that briefly holds visual information 

• appearance 

• location in space

neurogenesis

formation of new neurons

long-term potentiation (LPT)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

causes a seizure by passing electrical current through the brain; used for treating mood disorders

consolidate

to shift memories into long-term storage 

Parts of the brain involved in explicit memories

• frontal lobes

• hippocampus 

Parts of the brain involved in implicit memories

• cerebellum

• basal ganglia 

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that we consciously know 

• declarative memory

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, frequency, etc,

implicit memories

retention of learned skills

• nondeclarative

Iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; an image of a memory that lasts no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Chunking 

organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often automatically 

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices 

Peg-word system

putting words to numbera

method of loci

location; assigning items or memories to items in a familiar place

Hierachies

a few broad categories divided and subdivided into narrower concepts

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice toyield better long term retention

Massed practice

cramming

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than simply rereading info

• retrieval practice effect

• test-enhanced learning

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure of appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically based on the meaning of words; yields best retention

Self-reference effect

tendency to remember self-relevant info

what are the two conscious memory systems?

• semantic 

• episodic 

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge 

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

Hippocampus

a nueral cen ter located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage 

function of left hippocampus

helps us remeber verbal info

function of right hippocampus

helps us recall visual info

memory co nsolidation

the neural storage of a long term memory

Flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Break down of memory processing

• automatic

  • implicit

    • cerebellum and basal ganglia

• Effortful

  • explicit

    • hippocampus and frontal lobes

retrospective memory

memories retrieved from the past

prospective memory

our intended future actions

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be the most effective in helping us recall it

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (recency effect) and the first items after a delay (primacy effect)

interleaning

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixingthe study of different topics 

highly superior autobiographical memory

the rare ability to recall personal life events with extreme detail and accuracy

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember info from one’s past

displacement

process where info that isn’t encoded for long-term storage is lost as new info enters short term memory

Storage decay

initially rapid loss of retention, then levels off

proactive inference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new info 

retroactive inference

the backward acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of older info

positive transfer

phenomenon where previously learned info often facilitates learning and new info 

repression

basic defense in Freud’s theory that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing memories

reconsolidation

process where previously stored memories are potentially altered when recalled

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading info 

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

deja vu

eerie sense that you’ve experienced something before

ways to improve memory

• rehearse repeatedly

• make material meaningful

• activate retrieval cues

• use mnemonic devices

• minimize inference

• sleep more

• test your knowledge