informal fallacies

uses the automatic definitions from quizlet

begging the question

A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt.

shifting the burden of truth

inappropriately assuming the validity of a claim unless it is proven false by another person who never made the original claim

Tu Quoque

Avoiding having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - answering criticism with criticism.

Subjectiveness

aligned with values, bias in the form of reporters out to get their subjects, or too close with their subjects

vested interest

special interest shown by people, organizations, or corporations that stand to benefit from a policy

Fake cause

The speaker tries to convince you that one event is caused another just because it happened first

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Appeal to Popularity

Arguing that a claim must be true merely because a substantial number of people believe it.

Appeal to Consequences

attempt to motivate belief with either the good consequences of believing or the bad consequences of disbelieving

Appeal to Ignorance

A fallacy that uses an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness.

anecdotal evidence

information passed on by word of mouth, not documented or scientific

straw man fallacy

instead of dealing with the actual issue, it attacks a weaker version of argument

Wishful thinking fallacy

Arguments based on what is pleasing to imagine, rather based on evidence, rationality, or reality.

false dilemma fallacy

argument in which a speaker reduces available choices to only two even though other alternatives exist

appeal to force fallacy

the assertion that you should do what I say or believe what I believe because, if you do not, I will harm you. Makes appeal to fear personal

Essentializing

reducing something or someone to certain characteristics that are assumed to be central to its nature and present in every member of its category

Appeal to pity

This type of fallacy uses the audiences sympathy, concern, or guilt in order to overwhelm their sense of logic

Confusing necessary and sufficient conditions

A necessary condition must be there, but it alone does not provide sufficient cause for the occurrence of the event. Only sufficient conditions can do this.

Middle-Ground Fallacy

Assuming that the middle position between two others is always the right one.

Appeal to Nature Fallacy

Making the argument that because something is 'natural' it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good, or ideal.

Fallacy of Composition

the false assumption that what is true for a part will also be true for the whole (Putin wants war, so the people of Russia want war)

Fallacy of Division

Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the parts.

Red Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Weak Analogy

Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy.

Tokenism

When a single member of a minority group is present in an office, workplace, or classroom and is seen as a representative of that minority group rather than as an individual

Complex Question Fallacy

involves asking a question that illegitimately presupposes some conclusion alluded to in the question

Equivocation Fallacy

when a key word or phrase in an argument is used with more than one meaning. It is an illegitimate switching of the meaning of a term during the reasoning.

slippery slope fallacy

a logical fallacy that assumes once an action begins it will lead, undeterred, to an eventual and inevitable conclusion

Slothful induction

the conclusion of a strong inductive argument is denied despite the evidence to the contrary

Appeal to Authority

A fallacy in which a speaker or writer seeks to persuade not by giving evidence but by appealing to the respect people have for a famous person or institution.

Special Pleading Fallacy

When someone uses a double standard or argues for an unjustified exception.

Scapegoating

act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal

appeal to tradition fallacy

argument in which a speaker asserts that the status quo is better than any new idea or approach

sunk cost fallacy

people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

availability bias

items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently

The Big Lie

telling a complete falsehood with such confidence that people believe it

Genetic Fallacy

Condemning an argument because of where it began, how it began, or who began it.

hasty generalization fallacy

argument in which a speaker draws a conclusion based on too few or inadequate examples

Modus Ponens

If A, then B. A. So, B.

Modus Tollens

If A then B. Not B. Therefore, not A.

Constructive Dilemma

Either A or B. If A, then C. If B, then D. So, either C or D.

Disjunctive Syllogism

If A is true, then B is false (A or B)