AP Psychology - Unit 4 Social Psychology & Personality Review Slides

Motivation

Process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

Drive

Psychological process that directs and maintains behavior toward a goal.

Primary Drive

Innate drives controlled by the hypothalamus, such as hunger, thirst, or sex.

Secondary Drive

Learned drives that arise from conditioning, such as working for money.

Instincts

Genetically programmed behaviors in response to specific stimuli.

Incentives

Positive or negative stimuli that motivate behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in a behavior because one wants to, without external pressure or incentives.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in a behavior due to external incentives or rewards.

Instinct Theory

Theory that posits that people are motivated by inborn behaviors.

Drive Reduction Theory

Theory stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis.

Optimum Arousal Theory

Theory suggesting that individuals seek an optimal level of arousal for peak performance.

Self-Determination Theory

Theory suggesting that people become self-determined when their needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy are fulfilled.

Sensational-Seeking Theory

Theory emphasizing the tendency to seek out thrilling activities to increase stimulation and arousal.

Approach-approach Conflict

Situation where two attractive but incompatible goals pull an individual.

Avoidance-avoidance Conflict

Conflict between two undesirable alternatives.

Approach-avoidance Conflict

Situation where there is attraction and repulsion to the same stimulus.

Glucose

A form of sugar that circulates in the blood and is a major energy source for body tissues.

Ghrelin

Hormone that stimulates hunger.

Leptin

Hormone that suppresses hunger.

Lateral hypothalamus

Part of the brain that stimulates hunger.

Ventromedial hypothalamus

Part of the brain that signals fullness.

Set point

Weight thermostat that may be genetically based.

Basal Metabolic Rate

The body's resting rate of energy output.

James-Lange Theory

Theory that suggests our experience of emotion is our awareness of physiological responses.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Theory stating that an emotion-arousing stimulus triggers physiological responses and subjective experiences simultaneously.

Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer)

Theory that emotion is experienced through physical arousal followed by cognitive appraisal of the situation.

Spillover Effect

When physiological arousal from one situation spills over into another, influencing emotions.

Zajonc + LeDoux

Idea that some emotional responses occur instantly, without conscious evaluation.

Facial Feedback Effect

The tendency of facial expressions to influence emotional experiences.

Behavior Feedback Effect

Behavioral changes affecting thoughts and feelings.

Attributions

The process of explaining the causes of behavior and events.

Explanatory Styles

The way individuals explain events can be optimistic or pessimistic.

Biases

Systematic tendencies to think in certain ways that may lead to irrational judgments.

Person Perception

The process of forming impressions about others, influenced by physical appearance and behavior.

Dispositional Attribution

Assigning behavior to internal characteristics, such as personality traits.

Situational Attribution

Assigning behavior to external factors, like environment or circumstances.

Actor-Observer Bias

Tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational factors while attributing others' actions to personal characteristics.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating dispositional factors while underestimating situational influences when explaining others' behaviors.

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing personal successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that one controls their life outcomes based on their own actions.

External Locus of Control

Belief that outcomes are determined by external forces.

Mere Exposure Effect

Preference for things simply because they are familiar.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief that influences behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true.

Mirror-Image Perceptions

Mutual perceptions in conflict where both parties view each other as the source of conflict.

Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself in relation to others.

Relative Deprivation

Feeling worse off compared to others.

Attitude

A psychological tendency expressed by evaluating an entity with favor or disfavor.

Stereotype

Generalized belief about a group that oversimplifies their characteristics.

Social Identity

Part of an individual's self-concept derived from group membership.

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort being used in working memory.

Prejudice

Preconceived negative judgment toward a group lacking factual basis.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment based on group membership.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious beliefs affecting behavior without awareness.

Just-World Phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve.

Outgroup

A social group with which one does not identify.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Perceiving outgroup members as more similar to each other.

Ingroup

A social group with which one identifies.

In-Group Bias

Favoring one's own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's own culture.

Scapegoat Theory

Prejudice arising from blaming another group for personal frustrations.

Other-Race Effect

Better recognition of faces from one's own race.

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to initial beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

Confirmation Bias

Searching for information that confirms existing beliefs.

Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort from holding contradictory beliefs or values.

Role

Expected behaviors and responsibilities within a social position.

Social Norms

Accepted standards of behavior in a society.

Social Influence Theory

Examines how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors change in response to others.

Normative Social Influence

Influence seeking approval or avoiding disapproval.

Informational Social Influence

Influence stemming from the desire to be correct.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Persuasion relying on superficial cues rather than content.

Halo Effect

Positive trait impression affecting perception of other traits.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Small request followed by a larger request to gain compliance.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Large request likely to be refused, followed by a smaller request.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior to align with group standards.

Persuasion

Convincing someone to change beliefs or attitudes.

Central Route Persuasion

Persuasion through careful consideration of message content.

Obedience

Following orders from an authority figure.

Culture

Shared beliefs, values, and practices of a group.

Tight Culture

Culture with strict norms and high expectation of behavior.

Loose Culture

Culture with relaxed norms and individual variation.

Individualism

Cultural orientation emphasizing personal autonomy.

Collectivism

Cultural orientation prioritizing group goals over personal interests.

Multiculturalism

Coexistence of multiple cultural groups within a society.

Group Polarization

Tendency for group discussions to lead to more extreme opinions.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony leading to poor decision-making.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Reduced obligation to act when others are present.

Social Loafing

Exerting less effort in a group compared to alone.

Deindividuation

Reduced self-awareness and accountability in groups.

Social Facilitation

Better performance on simple tasks in the presence of others.

Social Trap

Acting in self-interest leading to negative group outcomes.

Superordinate Goals

Goals requiring cooperation to foster collaboration.

Prosocial Behavior

Voluntary actions intended to benefit others.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Social Responsibility Norm

Expectation to help dependent individuals.

The Bystander Effect

Lower likelihood of helping when others are present.

Social Exchange Theory

Social behavior as an exchange process optimizing benefits.

Reciprocity Norm

Expectation to respond reciprocally in social interactions.

Personality

Stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in individuals.

Psychodynamic Theory

Emphasizes unconscious influences and early experiences on behavior.

Psychoanalysis

Therapeutic approach exploring the unconscious mind.