Week 9-10 Notable Terms & Ideas

Libyan political system under Qaddafi

Claimed to be a “people’s democracy” (Jamahiriya) but was in reality an authoritarian regime centered on Qaddafi’s rule.

Basics of Libya's economy, size, and population

Oil-rich North African nation with ~6–7 million people; oil exports dominated its economy, but wealth distribution was uneven.

Libyan foreign policy changes under Qaddafi during 1990s and 2000s

Shifted from sponsoring terrorism to reconciliation with the West, accepting responsibility for past attacks.

US cooperation with Libya on counterterrorism and security concerns

After 2003, Libya worked with the U.S. to combat Islamist extremism, including groups like the LIFG.

End of Libya's WMD programs

In 2003, Qaddafi gave up nuclear and chemical weapons, improving relations with the U.S. and Europe.

Muammar Qaddafi (Gaddafi)

Ruled Libya from 1969–2011; promoted his “Third Universal Theory”; overthrown and killed during the Arab Spring.

Ronald Reagan

U.S. president (1981–1989) who confronted Libya, calling it a state sponsor of terrorism and authorizing the 1986 airstrikes.

Libyan Fighting Group (LIFG)

Islamist group formed in the 1990s to overthrow Qaddafi; some members later joined al-Qaeda.

Ibn Sheikh al-Libi

Libyan militant; captured post-9/11; his coerced false testimony linked Iraq to al-Qaeda training camps.

Muattasim al-Qaddafi

Qaddafi’s son and national security adviser; key regime figure until killed in 2011.

La Belle Disco bombing

1986 Berlin nightclub attack linked to Libyan agents; killed U.S. servicemen and led to U.S. retaliation.

Operation El Dorado Canyon

1986 U.S. airstrikes on Tripoli and Benghazi ordered by Reagan after the Berlin bombing.

Downing of Pan Am 103 ("Lockerbie bombing")

1988 bombing over Scotland that killed 270; Libya took responsibility and paid compensation in the 2000s.

Mohammed Bouazizi

Street vendor from Tunisia whose self-immolation in 2010 sparked the Arab Spring uprisings.

President Ben Ali

Authoritarian president of Tunisia who was overthrown during the 2011 uprising.

President Mubarak

Longtime Egyptian leader ousted in 2011 after mass protests in Cairo’s Tahrir Square.

President Obama

U.S. President during the Arab Spring; balanced support for democracy with regional stability.

Vice President Biden

U.S. Vice President during the Arab Spring; part of Obama’s foreign policy team responding to uprisings.

Uprising

A mass movement of citizens protesting against government oppression or corruption, often seeking regime change.

Arab Uprisings of 2010–2011 (Arab Spring)

A wave of pro-democracy protests and revolutions across the Arab world demanding reform and justice.

Differences in outcomes across Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen, Bahrain, Libya, Syria

Each uprising had distinct results: Tunisia saw a democratic transition; Egypt returned to military rule; Yemen descended into conflict; Bahrain faced repression; Libya and Syria fell into civil war.

Differences between Arab outcomes and Eastern European outcomes (in 1989)

Eastern European revolutions generally led to more stable democratic transitions, while Arab uprisings often resulted in instability, civil war, or authoritarian resurgence.

US response to Egyptian uprising

The U.S. initially acted cautiously, later urging Mubarak to resign while maintaining relations with Egypt’s military.

Benefits of the Qaddafi regime for the European Union

Qaddafi helped the EU limit migration across the Mediterranean and supplied key oil and gas resources.

Benefits of the Qaddafi regime for the United States

After renouncing WMDs in 2003, Qaddafi cooperated on counterterrorism and opened Libya’s oil market to U.S. firms.

Start of the Libyan uprising

Began in February 2011 as part of the Arab Spring, with protests demanding the end of Qaddafi’s 42-year rule.

Qaddafi's response to the Libyan uprising

He used military force against protesters, calling them “terrorists” and triggering international outrage.

Non-US calls for foreign intervention

France, the UK, and Arab states pushed early for a no-fly zone to stop Qaddafi’s attacks on civilians.

White House decision-making on intervention

Obama’s team debated action; Clinton and Rice backed intervention, while Gates and Biden urged caution.

Basics of UNSC Resolution 1973/2011

Authorized “all necessary measures” to protect Libyan civilians, including a NATO-enforced no-fly zone.

Muammar Qaddafi

Libya’s ruler from 1969–2011; his authoritarian rule ended when rebels overthrew him during the Arab Spring.

Mehdi Ziu

Libyan revolutionary who died driving an explosives-filled car into a Qaddafi checkpoint, inspiring rebel forces.

Nicolas Sarkozy (France)

French president who led the push for military intervention, framing it as a humanitarian duty.

David Cameron (UK)

UK prime minister who joined France and the U.S. in leading NATO’s Libya campaign to protect civilians.

The National Transitional Council (NTC) of Libya

Political body representing anti-Qaddafi forces; it led the opposition and became Libya’s interim government.

Susan Rice

U.S. ambassador to the UN who championed action in Libya and helped pass Resolution 1973.

Robert Gates

U.S. Defense Secretary skeptical of intervention, warning about mission creep and limited U.S. interests.

Joe Biden

Then–Vice President who opposed intervention, wary of another long U.S. military entanglement.

Hillary Clinton

Secretary of State who strongly supported intervention to stop civilian massacres and uphold U.S. credibility.

Operation Odyssey Dawn

The initial U.S.-led phase of military action in March 2011 enforcing the UN’s no-fly zone and protecting civilians in Libya.

Operation Unified Protector

The NATO mission that took over from the U.S., continuing airstrikes and enforcement of the no-fly zone against Qaddafi’s forces.

Obama claims of humanitarian rescue of Libyan civilians

The Obama administration justified intervention as a moral duty to prevent a massacre in Benghazi and save civilian lives.

Shift of US-UK-France goals in April 2011

The focus moved from civilian protection to regime change, aiming to remove Qaddafi from power.

Legal complications with Obama's use of force in Libya

Critics argued Obama bypassed Congress and violated the War Powers Resolution by continuing military action without approval.

Challenges for Libyan opposition of advancing across Libya

Rebel forces struggled with poor organization, limited weapons, and the vast desert terrain dividing the country.

Outcome of intervention and Libyan uprising

Qaddafi was overthrown and killed, but Libya descended into political chaos and civil conflict afterward.

Similarities and differences with other US interventions

Like past missions, it used airpower and coalition forces, but differed by avoiding ground troops and focusing on UN authorization.

Extent of US role and risk-taking in Libya war during March 19–October 31, 2011

The U.S. led initial airstrikes but quickly shifted to a supporting NATO role, minimizing troop risk while relying on allies for most operations.

US policy after regime change in Libya

After Qaddafi’s fall, U.S. involvement sharply declined, focusing on diplomacy and limited aid rather than rebuilding or securing Libya.

General course of Libyan indigenous (domestic) politics after October 2011

Libya fractured into rival factions and militias, with weak central governance and ongoing instability.

Content and outcome of September 11, 2012 attacks on US consulate and annex in Benghazi

Militants attacked U.S. diplomatic sites in Benghazi, killing Ambassador Chris Stevens and three others, leading to major U.S. political controversy.

Ambassador Chris Stevens

The U.S. ambassador to Libya who supported post-revolution stabilization efforts and was killed in the 2012 Benghazi attack.

The argument for the US doing more after October 2011

Advocates said stronger U.S. engagement could have stabilized Libya and prevented the power vacuum that fueled chaos and extremism.

The counterargument for the US not doing more

Critics argued deeper involvement risked another costly, open-ended conflict with limited national interest for the U.S.

Hafez al-Assad

Syrian president from 1971 to 2000 who established an authoritarian regime centered on the Ba'ath Party and Alawite elite control.

Bashar al-Assad

Succeeded his father in 2000; continued authoritarian rule, using brutal tactics to suppress dissent and preserve regime power.

Maher Arar

Canadian engineer wrongly detained by the U.S. in 2002 and sent to Syria, where he was tortured; his case became a symbol of extraordinary rendition abuses.

Hamah massacre of 1982

A violent crackdown by Hafez al-Assad’s forces on Islamist insurgents in Hama, killing thousands and crushing opposition.

Syrian leadership succession of 2000

After Hafez’s death, his son Bashar al-Assad assumed power, signaling regime continuity rather than reform.

Experience of Maher Arar in US and Syrian custody

Arrested by U.S. authorities post-9/11, sent to Syria under rendition, and tortured before being released without charges.

Ethnic demography of Syria

A diverse mix of Arabs, Kurds, Alawites, Christians, and Druze; the regime relied heavily on the Alawite minority for loyalty.

Political system of Syria 1970–2024

A one-party authoritarian state dominated by the Ba’ath Party and the Assad family, with limited political freedoms.

General Syrian-US relations during 1981–2010

Marked by tension and mistrust over terrorism, Israel, and Lebanon, with occasional cooperation on security issues.

State Sponsors of Terrorism (SSTs) list

A U.S. list designating nations that support terrorism; Syria was added in 1979 for backing groups like Hezbollah.

Reasons for tension between Washington and Damascus

U.S. objections to Syria’s support for militant groups, ties with Iran, and opposition to U.S. Middle East policies.

Constraints on US intervention options

Syria’s alliances with Russia and Iran, along with regional instability, limited U.S. willingness for direct action.

Post-9/11 security cooperation

Despite tensions, the U.S. and Syria briefly cooperated on intelligence sharing against terrorism after the 9/11 attacks.

The Fifth Amendment of the US Constitution

Guarantees due process and protection against self-incrimination, central to Arar’s legal claims of rights violations.

Arar v. Ashcroft (legal case)

Maher Arar sued U.S. officials for his rendition and torture, but courts dismissed the case, citing national security and immunity issues.