U4 AOS1 | Global Health & Human Development exam ( 120 expert questions and answers )

Human development

Creating an environment in which people can develop to their full potential and lead productive, creative lives according to their needs and interests. It is about expanding people's choices and enhancing capabilities, having access to knowledge, health and a decent standard of living, and participating in the life of their community and decisions affecting their lives.

Human development is about creating an environment in which people can:

-Participate in decisions that affect their lives

-Expand their knowledge and choices

-Opportunities for a productive and creative life

-Participate in the life of their community

-Lead long and healthy lives

- Have access to essential resources required for a decent standard of living

Human development index (HDI)

A tool developed by the United Nations to measure and compare levels of social and economic development. It provides a single statistic from 0 to 1 based on three dimensions and four indicators.

Three dimensions & four indicators of the HDI

Dimensions

-A long and healthy life

-Knowledge

-A decent standard of living

Indicators

-Life expectancy at birth

-Mean years of schooling

-Expected years of schooling

-Gross national income per capita (GNI)

Life expectancy at birth

The number of years of life, on average, remaining to an individual at a particular age if death rates do not change

Mean years of schooling

The average number of years of formal education achieved by those aged 25 years and over

Expected years of schooling

The number of years of formal education expected for a child of school-entrance age

Gross national income (GNI)

The overall income of a country after expenses owing to other countries have been paid, divided by the population of the country.

Advantages of the HDI

Simple Comparison

HDI gives one number that makes comparing countries easier.

Tracks Progress

It shows how a country improves or declines over time, helping identify those needing support.

Comprehensive Measure

HDI includes income, education, and life expectancy, offering a broader view than one indicator alone.

Disadvantages of the HDI

Ignores Key Factors

HDI doesn’t include things like gender equality or discrimination, missing parts of human development.

Hides Inequality

It shows averages, which can hide differences between groups or within countries.

Data May Be Inaccurate

Countries might report data differently or inaccurately, making comparisons less reliable.

Classifying countries

The World Bank uses a country's Gross National Income (GNI) per capita to allocate countries into three different groups:

-Low income

-Middle income (upper and lower)

-High income

Characteristics of countries

-Economic characteristics

-Environmental characteristics

-Social characteristics

Economic characteristics

Economic characteristics are often related to the wealth and standard of living in a country, and this can influence the opportunities and resources available for citizens.

Economic characteristics of high-income countries

-High average incomes

-Lower levels of poverty

-More opportunities for global trade

-Wide range of industries

High average incomes

People in high-income countries are more likely to be able to afford education, healthcare and everyday necessities such as clean water, shelter and food.

Wide range of industries

People in high-income countries are more likely to have a wide range of job choice. This means that finding work is often less difficult than in low- and middle-income countries.

More opportunities for global trade

High-income countries are likely to have a wider range of products to trade in, meaning that there are more job opportunities for citizens and the country can generate more tax revenue. The tax revenue collected may then be spent on public resources such as healthcare and education.

Lower levels of poverty

Poverty can be measured in several different ways, but typically people in high-income countries are more likely to have access to resources such as shelter, food, education and healthcare than in low- and middle-income countries.

Social characteristics

Social characteristics often relate to how people live, interact, and are supported within society.

Social characteristics of high-income countries

-High levels of education

-High levels of access to technology

-Developed social protection systems

-Low birth rates and population growth

-High levels of employment

-High levels of gender equality

-High levels of access to healthcare

High levels of education

People in high-income countries are likely to have attended education for a longer period of time and have higher educational qualifications. This increases their knowledge and skills related to health and wellbeing and contributes to higher levels of human development.

High levels of access to healthcare

People in high-income countries are likely to have access to a range of healthcare resources at free or subsidised costs.

High levels of gender equality

Males and females in high-income countries are likely to have equal access to education, employment and positions of influence in society.

High levels of employment

People in high-income countries are more likely to be employed and in a decent paying job. This means they are more likely to afford the necessities for good health and a decent standard of living.

Low birth rates and population growth

People in high-income countries are likely to have less children and therefore more resources per child are available to contribute to their upbringing.

Developed social protection systems

People in high-income countries are likely to have access to financial resources to sustain a decent standard of living if they are unemployed, elderly or have a disability.

High levels of access to technology

People in high-income countries are more likely to have access to technology that can assist with employment, health and everyday living, such as the internet, smartphones, laptops and medical technology.

Environmental characteristics

Environmental characteristics often relate to the natural surroundings, climate, and resources that shape how people live.

Environmental characteristics of high-income countries

-More adequate housing

-High levels of carbon dioxide emissions

-More adequate infrastructure

-Greater food security

-High levels of access to safe water and sanitation

More adequate housing

People in high-income countries are likely to live in houses that are not crowded, well ventilated and protect them from the elements.

High levels of access to safe water and sanitation

People in high-income countries are likely to have access to clean water and hygienic facilities, thus reducing their risk of contracting water-borne communicable diseases.

Greater food security

People in high-income countries are likely to have ongoing access to a nutritious supply of food, meaning they can obtain the nutrients required for good health and to carry out their daily tasks.

More adequate infrastructure

People in high-income countries are likely to have access to transport systems and infrastructure that allows them to easily move around, meaning they can attend school and work and carry on with their daily lives with ease.

High levels of carbon dioxide emissions

Given that high-income countries typically have a wider range of industries than low- and middle-income countries, they emit higher amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere per person, which contributes to climate change.

Communicable diseases (infectious)

Can spread from one person, or animal, to another and they are typically caused by microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. Examples include cholera, malaria, HIV/AIDS and influenza

Non-communicable diseases (lifestyle)

Are diseases that do not spread from person to person, and are often caused by a range of lifestyle, genetics and environmental factors. Examples include cancer, type 2 diabetes, asthma and cardiovascular disease such as stroke.

Malnutrition

Refers to deficiencies or excesses in nutrient intake, imbalance of essential nutrients or impaired nutrient utilisation. It consists of both undernutrition and overweight and obesity, as well as diet-related noncommunicable diseases.

Malaria

A disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. It causes an infection of your red blood cells and can be life-threatening if not treated.

Tuberculosis

An airborne bacterial infection caused by the bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis that primarily affects the lungs, although other organs and tissues may be involved

Hepatitis

An inflammation of the liver that is caused by a variety of infectious viruses and noninfectious agents, leading to a range of health problems, some of which can be fatal. There are five main strains of the hepatitis virus, referred to as types A, B, C, D and E.

HIV/AIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that can weaken the immune system to the point that it is unable to fight off some infections. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is the most advanced stage of HIV infection, where the immune system is at its weakest and a person has one or more specific illnesses.

Cholera

An acute diarrheal infection caused by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. It is an extremely serious disease that can cause severe diarrhoea and dehydration, and can be fatal if left untreated.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

A progressive lung disease characterised by airflow limitation, often caused by smoking, and encompasses conditions like emphysema and chronic bronchitis, leading to difficulty breathing.

Typhoid

Caused by the Salmonella Typhi bacteria, is a serious bacterial infection of the intestinal tract and bloodstream. It is often spread through contaminated food and water, and can be life-threatening if left untreated.

Neonatal disorders

Encompass a wide range of conditions that can affect newborns, including prematurity, respiratory problems, infections, metabolic issues, and birth defects, often requiring specialised care in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU).

Gastroenteritis

An inflammation of the stomach and intestines causing symptoms like diarrhoea, vomiting, and stomach cramps, usually due to a viral, bacterial, or parasitic infection.

Double burden of disease

Double burden of disease is experienced when low-, and sometimes middle-income countries, face both high levels of communicable and non-communicable diseases at the same time.

Factors that contribute to similarities and differences in health status and human development

-Access to safe water

-Sanitation

-Poverty

-Discrimination (race, religion, sex, sexual orientation and gender identity)

Access to safe water

Safe water is free from contaminants such as bacteria and viruses, and chemicals such as mercury and lead, making it safe to drink, cook with and use for hygiene purposes.

Health conditions associated with poor access to safe water

-Cholera

-Hepatitis A

-Diarrhoeal disease

-Typhoid

Access to safe water - health status

A lack of access to safe water in low-income countries means that individuals are more likely to consume water contaminated with pathogens, such as bacteria, compared to high-income countries. This contributes to a higher incidence of waterborne diseases caused by bacteria, such as cholera, in low-income countries.

Access to safe water - human development

A lack of access to safe water in low-income countries means that women and girls are more likely to need to travel long distances to collect water compared to high-income countries. This contributes to these women and girls being less able to attend school or work, reducing their ability to enhance their capabilities, such as develop problem solving skills, reducing levels of human development in low-income countries.

Sanitation

Refers to the provision of facilities and services fore the safe disposal of human urine and feaces

Health conditions associated with lack of sanitation

-Cholera

-Typhoid

-Diarrhoeal disease

-Parasitic infections such as hookworm

Sanitation - health status

A lack of access to sanitation in low-income compared to high-income countries means that people are more likely to be participating in open defection. This can lead to increased spread of pathogens such as bacteria, which can contribute to increased mortality from conditions such as typhoid in low-income countries.

Sanitation - human development

A lack of access to sanitation in low-income compared to high-income countries means that girls may be less likely to attend school if they are menstruating and toilets are not available. This means that they are less likely to enhance their capabilities, such as literacy and numeracy skills, reducing levels of human development in low-income countries.

Poverty

Refers to deprivation which often stems from lack of income, but can present as a lack of material resources such as food, shelter, clean water, and healthcare

Relative poverty

Those living on less than 50% of their country's average income

Extreme poverty

Those living on less than a specific dollar amount (often $2.50) a day

Health conditions associated with poverty

-Malnutrition

-Respiratory disease

-Diarrhoeal disease

-Type 2 diabetes

-Cardiovascular disease

Poverty - health status

Higher levels of poverty in low-income countries compared to high-income countries may mean that people are less able to afford nutritious food. This may contribute to increased morbidity from conditions such malnutrition in low-income countries.

Poverty - human development

Higher levels of poverty in low-income countries compared to high-income countries may mean that people are less able to afford adequate housing. This reduces their ability to access a decent standard of living, thereby reducing levels of human development in low-income countries.

Discrimination

Discrimination refers to unfair or unjust treatment of individuals or groups based on certain characteristics, such as race, religion, sex, sexual orientation or gender identity.

Health conditions associated with discrimination

-Injuires

-Intentional self harm

-Cardiovascular disease

-Mental health conditions such as depression

Discrimination - health status

Women in low-income countries may be more likely to experience discrimination from healthcare services than in high-income countries. This may contribute to reduced access to health professionals and treatment when pregnant, contributing to increased rates of maternal mortality in low-income countries.

Discrimination - human development

Gay people in low-income countries may be more likely to experience discrimination from education services than in high-income countries. This reduces the ability of these individuals to enhance their capabilities, such as develop problem solving and rational thinking skills, reducing levels of human development in low-income countries.

Sustainability

Sustainability refers to meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Three dimensions of sustainability

-Economic sustainability

-Social sustainability

-Environmental sustainability

Economic sustainability

Ensuring that average incomes in all countries are adequate to sustain a decent standard of living and continue to rise in line with inflation and living costs in the future.

Factors that promote economic sustainability

-Job creation

-Economic growth

-Innovation and diversity of industries

-Trade

Job creation - how it promotes health

Job creation now and into the future means more people can obtain employment. This means that people can develop skills, such as problem solving and IT skills, which can promote self-esteem and confidence, in addition to logical reasoning and thinking skills (mental health and wellbeing)

Job creation - how it promotes human development

Job creation now and into the future means more people can obtain employment. This means they are more likely to earn an income to afford a decent standard of living, such as food and shelter, thereby promoting human development.

Economic growth - how it promotes health

Economic growth that can be maintained into the future can contribute to increased tax revenue collected by governments, allowing them to invest in building more health facilities such as hospitals. This can help reduce illness and disease and increase self-assessed health status.

Economic growth - how it promotes human development

Economic growth that can be maintained into the future can contribute to increased tax revenue collected by governments, allowing them to invest in building more education facilities such as schools. This can allow citizens to enhance their capabilities, such as literacy and numeracy skills, thereby promoting human development.

Social sustainablity

Creating an equitable society where all people can access social resources, both now and into the future.

Factors that promote social sustainability

-Peace and security

-Promotion of political and legal rights

-Access to safe and decent working conditions

-Gender equality

-Provision of social protection systems

Peace and security - how it promotes health

Peace and security now and into the future means children are likely to be safe enough to attend school. This means they are less likely to be injured or killed from conflict while going to and from or being at school, reducing morbidity and mortality rates.

Peace and security - how it promotes human development

Peace and security now and into the future means adults are likely to feel safe enough to participate in decisions that affect their lives, such as through political protests. freedom of speech and sharing opinions, thereby promoting human development.

Gender equality - how it promotes health

Ensuring gender equality is promoted for future generations can ensure girls have equal access to school as boys. This can ensure both girls and boys can learn how to bounce back from challenges and improve their resilience (emotional health and wellbeing).

Gender equality - how it promotes human development

Ensuring gender equality is promoted for future generations can ensure both women and men have equal access to healthcare when they are unwell, helping them to live long and healthy lives, thereby promoting human development.

Environmental sustainability

Ensuring the natural environment is used in a way that will preserve resources into the future

Factors that promote environmental sustainability

-Maintaining biodiversity

-Addressing climate change

-Safe waste removal and reducing pollution

-Sustainable use of natural resources

Safe waste removal and reducing pollution - how it promotes health

Reducing air pollution on an ongoing basis by reducing the burning of fossil fuels, like coal, can decrease the likelihood people will develop respiratory health conditions from the fumes, such as asthma, promoting the functioning of the body and systems (physical health and wellbeing).

Safe waste removal and reducing pollution - how it promotes human development

Safe waste removal, such as the provision on flushing toilets on an ongoing basis, can encourage females to attend school, even when they are menstruating. This can then allow them to enhance their capabilities, such as develop their literacy and numeracy skills, thereby promoting human development.

Sustainable use of natural resources - how it promotes health

The sustainable use of resources now and into the future, such as clean water, ensures that people can drink this water without contracting waterborne diseases such as cholera, reducing the prevalence of this condition.

Sustainable use of natural resources - how it promotes human development

The sustainable use of resources now and into the future, such as timber, allows this resource to act as an ongoing source of shelter. This allows people to have access to a decent standard of living, thereby promoting human development.

Global trends

-Climate change

-Conflict

-Mass migration

-Increased world trade

-Tourism

-Digital technologies.

Climate change

Climate change refers to long term adjustments in global temperatures and weather patterns.

Impacts of climate change

-Rising sea levels

-Increasing number of extreme weather events

-Changing weather patterns

Rising sea levels - implications for health

Rising sea levels may contribute to the need to relocate people living close to the sea. This may increase stress and anxiety and be negative for mental health and wellbeing.

Rising sea levels - implications for human development

Rising sea levels may contribute to the need to relocate people living close to the sea. This may mean people are unable to remain and contribute to the life of their community, reducing human development.

Changing weather patterns - implications for health

Longer periods of drought may contribute to less income being generated from the land by farmers. This may increase stress and anxiety and be negative for mental health and wellbeing.

Changing weather patterns - implications for human development

Longer periods of drought may contribute to less income being generated from the land by farmers. This may therefore reduce their ability to afford food and shelter and have a decent stand of living, thereby reducing human development.

Increasing number of extreme weather events - implications for health

Extreme weather events such as cyclones, floods, fires and storms, are expected to become more common and may contribute to more injuries from such events, which may increase the YLDs and burden of disease for injuries.

Increasing number of extreme weather events - implications for human development

Extreme weather events such as cyclones, floods, fires and storms may, damage infrastructure such as schools, preventing children from attending. This means they are less able to have access to knowledge, such as what contributes to climate change, thereby reducing levels of human development.

Conflict

Relates to civil or international war that results in violent interactions between groups.

Potential impacts of conflict

-Damaged infrastructure

-Large numbers of people are displaced

-Funding diverted from healthcare and education to defence

-Absence from employment and education to participate in defence of a nation

Conflict - implications for health

Water and sanitation facilities can be destroyed in conflict, and when this occurs, many people are at risk of becoming unwell from diseases such as cholera caused by unsafe water, which negatively affects physical health and wellbeing.

Conflict - implications for human development

Conflict can lead to the destruction of healthcare facilities such as hospitals. This may lead to reduced access for citizens when they are injured or unwell, reducing their ability to lead long and healthy lives, thereby reducing human development.

Mass migration

Can be a consequence of conflict, and it is when many people move from one place to another, either within a country or across borders. Other reasons for mass migration can include climate change and the violation of human rights.