APCOGO Unit 1 Terms

Causation

When a change in one variable precipitates a change in another variable

Correlation

An apparent connection between variables

Empirical statement

An assertion of a fact that can be proven

Normative statement

A value judgement, usually in the form of should or ought to

Quantitative data

Observations made using statistical techniques

Qualitative data

Text-based descriptions

Human Development Index (HDI)

An aggregate measure of life expectancy, education, and per capita income

Gross domestic product (GDP)

The total value of goods and services produced in a country in a year

GDP per capita

Gross domestic product divided by population

GDP growth rate

The percentage of GDP growth over a period of time

Gini index (coefficient)

A measure of income inequality within a country

Freedom House

A nongovernmental organization that advocates for democracy and human rights, measuring freedom around the world

Democratic consolidation

The process by which a regime has developed stable democratic institutions and significant protections of civil liberties, leaving it unlikely to return to authoritarianism

Corruption

The abuse of official power for personal gain

Corruption Perceptions Index

A measure of how corrupt a system is believed to be

Strong state

A state that is capable of providing necessary government services to its citizens

Failed state

A state that has lost control over all or part of its territory

Fragile State Index

A measure of state strength, highlighting concerns about fragile and failed states

State

Political institutions with international recognition that govern a population in a territory

Government

Institutions and individuals that make legally binding decisions for the state and that have the lawful right to use power to enforce those decisions

Bureaucracy

A set of appointed officials and government workers who carry out policies

Sovereignty

A state’s ability to act without internal or external interference

Regime

A type of government, either democratic or authoritarian

Coup d’etat

An overthrow of government by a small number of people, often military leaders

Revolution

An overthrow of a regime based on widespread popular support

Nation

A group of people who share a sense of belonging and who often have a common language, culture, religion, race, ethnicity, political identity, or traditions

Nationalism

When a group has a strong sense of identity and believes it has its own destiny

Liberal democracy

A system with free and fair elections and in which a wide array of civil liberties and civil rights are protected

Authoritarian state

A system without free and fair elections and in which civil liberties and civil rights are restricted

Totalitarian state

A type of authoritarian government where the state controls nearly all aspects of citizens’ lives

Illiberal, flawed, or hybrid democracy

A system in which elections may be marred by fraud and the state protects some civil liberties and civil rights but restricts others

Rule of law

A clear set of rules where government officials are subject to the same laws and penalties as citizens

Rule by law

Where the law is applied arbitrarily and government officials are not subject to the same rules as citizens

Democratic backsliding

A decline in the quality of democracy, including a decrease in civic participation, rule of law, transparency, and accountability

Power

The ability to make someone do something they would otherwise not do

Authority

The legitimate power a state has over people within its territory

Theocracy

A system based on religious rule

Coersion

The use or threat of force to get someone to do something they would otherwise not do

Legitimacy

The citizens’ belief that the government has the right to rule

Sources of legitimacy

• Popular elections

• Constitutional provisions

• Nationalism

• Tradition

• Government effectiveness

• Economic growth

• Ideology

• Religion

• Political party endorsement

Political efficacy

A citizens’ belief that their actions can impact the government

Traditional legitimacy

The right to rule based on a society’s long-standing patterns and practices

Charismatic legitimacy

The right to rule based on personal virtue, heroism, and other characteristics

Rational-legal legitimacy

The right to rule based on an accepted set of laws

Unitary system

A political system in which the central government has sole constitutional power and sovereignty

Federal system

A political system in which a state’s power is legally and constitutionally divided among more than one level of government

Devolution

Granting of powers by the central government to regional governments

China - Head of State

Xi Jinping

China - Head of Government

Li Quang

Iran - Head of State

Ali Khamenei

Iran - Head of Government

Masoud Pezeshkian

Mexico - Head of State/Government

Claudia Steinbaum

Nigeria - Head of State/Government

Bola Ahmed Tinubu

Russia - Head of State

Vladimir Putin

Russia - Head of Government

Mikhail Mishutin

United Kingdom - Head of State

Charles III

United Kingdom - Head of Government

Keir Starmer

China - Regime established?

• 1949 = Communists establish People’s Republic of China

• Chinese Revolution of 1949

Iran - Regime established?

• 1979 = Monarchy overthrown

• Iranian Revolution

Mexico - Regime established?

• 1917 = Constitution written

• Mexican Revolution

Nigeria - Regime established?

• 1999 = Constitution written

• 4th Nigerian Republic

Russia - Regime established?

• 1991 = Soviet Union collapses

• 1993 = Constitution written

United Kingdom = Regime established?

• 1215 = Magna Carta written

• Established Bill of Rights and tradition

Democratic regimes (AP6)

1. Mexico

2. Nigeria

3. United Kingdom

Authoritarian regimes (AP6)

1. China

2. Iran

3. Russia

China - Example of government change

Xi Jinping elected president by the National People’s Congress in 2012

Iran - Example of government change

Masoud Pezeshkian elected as 9th president of Iran via popular vote in 2024

Mexico - Example of government change

Claudia Sheinbaum elected president of Mexico via popular vote in 2024

Nigeria - Example of government change

Bola Ahmed Tinubu elected president of Nigeria via popular vote in 2023

Russia - Example of government change

Vladimir Putin becomes prime minister in 2008 and is later elected president again in 2012

United Kingdom - Example of government change

Keir Starmer appointed as prime minister by Parliament in 2024