criminal justice

final exam

community corrections

a halfway house, rehab facility, or home detention that helps an individual move from a correctional facility to complete freedom

conflict model

the idea that when a group comes together to form a society there will be differences within a group that will make it difficult to come to an agreement about that is a crime

consensus model

the idea that when a group comes together to from a society, they will have mutually shared values and norms and will come to a consensus about what is a crime

courtroom workgroup

the judge, courtroom staff, prosecutor, and defense attorney

crime

a legally prohibited section that injures the public welfare or morals or the interests of the state

crime control model

a model of the criminal justice system that focuses on controlling crime and protecting the public in the most efficient way

criminal justice system

the police, courts, and correctional departments

decriminalize

to legalize something that used to be a crime

department of justice

a department within the executive branch of the federal government designed to enforce the laws of the US

due process model

a model of the criminal justice system that focuses on protecting the rights of the accused

exclusionary rule

a legal mandate applied when a piece of evidence has been obtained in a manner that violates the rights of the defendant under due process

felony

a crime that is punishable by imprisonment in excess of a year or by death

misdemeanor

a lesser crime that is punishable by jail time for up to one year and/or for a fine

net-widening

a phenomenon in which the number of offenders within the court system increases as the criminal justice system expands the number of offenders it must supervise

norms

social expectations for appropriate behavior

plea bargain

an agreement between the state and defense on a plea and sentece

white-collar crime

crimes against businesses by people in high-profile positions

atavistic man

an identification of individuals participating in criminal activity as throwbacks from a primitive time

biological theories

theoretical proportions that look to the body to identify individuals who are predisposed to criminal offending

Chicago school

a specialized body of work in urban sociology that made use of the city chicago to study alcoholism, homelessness, suicide, psychoses, and poverty

classical school

a philosophy of crime that placed the responsibility for behavior on the offender

compurgation

a method of handling offenses during the pre-classical time period, in which individuals who could find a reputable person in their community to speak on their behalf would found innocent

conflict theory

a theory concerned with how power is maintained in a society rather than how individuals function within that continuum. holds that those with the most wealth in society are more likely to create the laws, maintain control, and have power over the lower classes

crime index

an index reported by the Uniform Crime Reports. crimes are divided into part1 and part 2 index offenses divided into violent crime index and the property crime index

criminal behavior

behavior defined by legislation, statutes, and code

dark figure of crime

offenses that go unreported to the police

deterrence theory

a theory of punishment based upon the premise that in order for any punishment to be effective it must be swift, severe, and certain

developmental pathways

a description of the various paths a youth may take into delinquent or criminal offending. these pathways include the authority conflict pathway, the convert pathway, and the overt pathway

deviance

behaviors considered outside of or inconsistent with normal behavior for a community or group

differential association theory

a sociological theory positing that crime is a product of the social environment whereby values are grained from those around individuals

feminist theories

theoretical explanations of crime, justice, and the entire criminal justice system from an androgynous perspective

general deterrence

a form of deterrence used to deter the populace from committing future criminal acts by ensuring that the principles of punishment are focused on potential criminals as opposed to the individual

general strain theory

an expansion of strain theory stating that the more strain individuals are exposed to, the more likely they are to participate in delinquent or criminal activity. types of strain include the failure to achieve positive stimuli, and the presentation of negative stimuli

integrated theories

theories that identify the most powerful elements of other theories and combine two or more of them into one explanation

labeling theory

a theoretical tradition in which criminals become set in their roles as criminals as a result of their stigmatized status

left realism

a philosophical approach advocating for more minimal responses or sanctions for street-level crimes and less serious offenses

life course theories

the contention that criminal offending is influenced by an individual’s previous experiences as well as traits or characteristics that are not changeable, such as impulsivity, age, etc

national incident-based reporting system

a national crime data collection program created and implemented during the 1980s in an effort to enhance the methodology for collection, analyzing, and publishing crime data

national crime victimization survey

a survey conducted on households in the US that includes detailed descriptions of criminal events, including the victim, potential precipitating factors, consequences of the event, and the offender

peacemaking criminology

a theory proposing the use of mediation, love, respect, and forgiveness to resolve societal conflicts and reduce recidivism and crime

personality theories

theories of crime that look to explain criminal behavior as an expression of impulsiveness, aggression, or sensation-seeking

positivist school

a school of thought on crime arguing that some behavior occurs as a result of factors outside the control of individuals

pre-classical school

a school of thought that held that crime was caused by supernatural forces as opposed to natural forces

reintegrative shaming

a process whereby offenders are punished, therefore repaying their debt to society, and then forgiven for their transgressions and reintegrated back into society

routine activities theory

a theory of criminal offending positing that crime is a function of opportunity - the convergence of a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of guardianship

self-report survey

a data collection effort asking participants to report the number the number of criminal offenses or activities they have committed

social control theory

a theoretical proposition that contends that the more strongly individuals are bonded to their community, the less likely they are to participate in delinquent activity

social disorganization theory

a theoretical proposition stating that communities with higher rates of social ills, such as breakdown in family composition breakdown, dilapidated buildings, unsupervised teenagers, high rates of poverty, high rates of residential mobility, and ethnic heterogeneity are most likely to experience high rates of crime and delinquency

specific deterrence

a form of deterrence used to deter an individual from committing future criminal acts by focusing the punishment on that individual

strain theory

a theoretical proposition contending that crime rates are produced by an individual’s inability to conform to cultural values or achieve monetary success through accepted norms

trial by battle

a mechanism for privately resolving disputes during the pre-classical time period, in which the victim or a chosen member of the victim’s family would battle with the offender or a chosen member of the offender’s family to determine guilt

trial by ordeal

a method of handling conflict privately during the pre-classical time period, which proving innocence involved the use of extremely painful or life-threatening methods of punishment

uniform crime reports

black codes

laws created after the end of slaver designed to regulate the activities of African American citizens

community policing

a method of policing that emphasizes community participation in police officer participation in community activities

constable

a local law enforcement officer who was responsible for collecting taxes and enforcing ordinances in the colonial and post-colonial US

corruption

abuse of police authority for personal gain

early warning systems

a means used by police leadership to identify a potentially problematic officer before his or her behavior becomes very serious

extralegal policing

policing that is not regulated or sanctioned by law

grass eaters

those police officers who engage in relatively passive forms of inappropriate behavior by accepting small favors or money for looking the other way when illegal activities are taking place

law enforcement assistance administration

a body created by the 1968 omnibus crime control and safe streets act to serve as a federal resource for local law enforcement agencies

law enforcement bulletin

a publication of the FBI that includes articles on law enforcement issues as well as information on wanted federal suspects

lynch mob

a group of individuals seeking to punish someone suspected of having committed a social transgression

meat eaters

police officers who are more aggressive in their illegal behavior and actively search for ways to make money illegally while on duty

Miranda rights

the obligation of police officers to inform suspects of their rights to remain silent and their right to an attorney

night watches

groups of local, unpaid citizens who would patrol the community at night to deter crime and alert residents of the time, weather, and hazards

pinkertons

a private investigation and security company formed in the 1880s that assisted in protecting goods, tracking down suspects, and braking strikes

posse

a group of residents temporarily enlisted by law enforcement agencies to assist to law enforcement functions

racial profiling

the use of race or ethnicity as the primary or only indicator that an individual may be participating in criminal activity

sheriff

a local law enforcement officer responsible for collecting taxes and enforcing ordinances in the colonial and post-colonial US

slave patrols

regulatory groups in the south in the colonial era focused on regulating the activities of slaves

SWAT

a paramilitary policing unit originally formed to deal with dangerous confrontations, but increasingly being used in everyday policing

texas rangers

one of the earliest law enforcement agencies in the American West

third degree

the infliction of pain by police officers in order to solicit evidence about a crime

vigilantism

the taking on the law enforcement responsibilities and the dispensing of punishment by private citizens

Wickersham commission

a commission that published comprehensive reports on the state of the American criminal justice system in 1990s

aggressive patrol

patrolling the community by making frequent and numerous traffic stops and fields interrogation of suspicious persons

bias-based profiling

blue code of silence

the unwritten code of protection among police officers

broken windows theory

a theory involving crime and disorder that states that is a community is allowed to physically deteriorate, an impression will be given that no one cares, causing crime to occur

COMPSTAT

a managerial system that uses criminal intelligence to identify crime problems and determine a crime reduction strategy

crime analysis

a systematic collection and analysis of crime data used to support police efforts in crime and disorder reduction and crime prevention

crime mapping

a process of using geographic information systems to conduct spatial analysis and investigation of crime

criminal investigation

a lawful investigation to reconstruct the circumstances of an illegal act, determine or apprehend the guilty party, and assist with the state’s prosecution

deep cover

undercover police operations for a lengthy period of time

directed patrol

spending an allotted amount of time patrolling a specific area of the community that is considered to be a high-crime area

discretion

the autonomy a police officer has to choose from a variety of courses of action in various situations

excessive force

an amount of physical force beyond that which is necessary to control a suspect

field interrogation

a temporary detention of an individual in order to question the individual about a suspicious circumstances

follow-up investigation

continuation of the preliminary investigation in an attempt to reconstruct the circumstances of a crime

intelligence-led policing

a business model in which data analysis and criminal intelligence are used to facilitate crime reduction, crime prevention, and enforcement strategies that target the most serious offenders

light cover

undercover police operations for a short period of time

operational styles

the approaches police officers use to preform their duties

order maintenance

a method of policing whereby officers interpret the law and decide on a course of action based on each individual situation when assigning blamed and choosing whether or not to arrest

preliminary investigation

evidence-gathering activities performed at the scene of a crime immediately after the crime was reported to or discovered by the police

preventive patrol

patrolling the community on an unpredictable and routine or random basis

problem-oriented policing

an approach to policing in which the underlying causes of crime are identified and addressed

role

the position one holds within a social structure

role conflict

the conflict between what a person may prefer to do and what the person is expected to do

role expectation

the behaviors and activities that people expect from a person in a particular role