Human Sexuality Exam 1

Define Sexuality

sexual attitudes, feelings, and behaviors

Describe the state of sex education in the US and list some of the benefits of well-designed comprehensive sex ed courses

US: determined locally, not federally.

• 5 states require comprehensive

• 30 states require general

• 12 states don’t require it to be age appropriate or medically accurate

Inis Beag vs Mangaia

Inis Beag: extremely sexually repressive

Mangaia: extremely sexually permissive

Define ethnocentrism

regarding one’s own cultural norms as the standard to judge others

Describe the common beliefs of experts on human sexuality

• diversity is natural and should be respected

• most attitudes/behaviors exist on a continuum

3 criteria used to determine if a practice is unhealthy or abnormal

1. involve coercion or force

2. potential of serious harm for self or others

3. causes personal distress

Compare sex ed in the US to more progressive societies, such as Netherlands or Sweden

• progressive societies have more comprehensive education, starting at age 5

• less sexual partners, starting sex later, less teen pregnancy and STI rates

Compare and contrast sexual attitudes and behavior of early societies (Greeks, Hebrews, Romans) and religious groups (Hindus, Muslims, Christians)

SOCIETIES

• Greeks: very sexual, openness to anything sexual, mentor/mentee

• Hebrews: promoted procreative heterosexual marital sex

• Romans: accepted moder practices, highlighted independence of passionate love and marriage

RELIGIOUS

• Hindus: Depends on region, but importance of sex in marital relations; “hirja” for third gender

• Muslims: historically positive, Muhammad viewed martial sex as highest possible good; male dominated; pleasure-primary

• Christians: placed new restrictions on sex, but views sex in-marriage as very important

Define theory and describe the purpose of theories as it relates to sexuality

attempts to explain, predict, and evaluate various phenomena

Describe the major assumption of behavioral theory; give example of how it explains sexual development using both classical and operant conditioning; explain how it may be used in a therapeutic setting and success rates

• Only observable behaviors should be studied, and sexuality/gender roles are developed through learning

• Classical Conditioning: Pairing a stimulus to produce an association

• Operant Conditioning: Behavioral consequences of rewards and punishments

• pair pain with unwanted sexual desire in therapy spaces; low success rate

Describe the major assumption of cognitive theory; explain how it may be used in a therapeutic setting

• our thoughts influence how we feel and act; most important sex organ is the brain

• therapy to rework thinking patters or beliefs, change the way people interpret and eveluate sexual experiences

Describe the major assumption of social learning theory

• sociological perspective; learn through identification and imitation of people like us, and is reinforced or punished by societal reactions

Describe the major assumption of social script theory

• everyone governed by social scripts

• rules/norms/expectations about events/behaviors/relationships

Describe the main focus of feminist and queer theories

• Feminist: how gender operates in our society and how power is used to oppress and create/maintain inequalities

• Queer: challenges normative assumptions about the nature of gender and sexuality; gender is social construct and is not binary

Describe main assumptions of psychoanalytic and evolutionary theories, plus one major criticism for each

Psychoanalytic

• Developed via Freud; attempts to explain everything by unconscious id/superego/ego; libido drives the Id

• Development broken down by ages

• Criticism: lacked major understanding of women or empirical evidence

Evolutionary

• based on natural selection and reproductive success; rooted in Darwin

• Criticisms: pheromone science not conclusive, does not explain non-mating practices, and gender differences across time and culture

Describe the main ethical guidelines

• IRB decides if design is ethical

  • weighs potential benefits against potential costs

  • informed consent: must be explained to participants before agreement to participate

  • voluntary participation: allowed to withdrawal at any time

  • minimize harm or distress

• Use of deception must be justified and explained, and a debriefing must be given afterwards

Describe sampling (random, representative, etc)

Sampling: selecting members of the population to be in your study

• Random- every person has equal opportunity of being in sample

• Representative- as much like broader population as possible

Explain volunteer bias

When people who volunteer for a study may noy be representative of the population under study

How do volunteers for sexuality research often differ from the populations they represent?

hold more sex-positive views, more experience, less guilt

Strengths and weaknesses of self-reported vs observational research

Self-report:

• Cheap, efficient, can study unobservable things, broader access of people

• limited design choices, potential for issues in questions, and unreliability of participants

Observational:

• accurate, physiological measurement possible

• increase volunteer bias, harder to generalize, expensive and time consuming, potential ethical issues

naturalistic vs participant vs lab and disguised vs undisguised observational research

Naturalistic: observe participants in natural environment

Participant: researcher joins in environment

• Disguised: people in environment don’t know they’re researching

• Undisguised: disclosing of intention

Lab: Observe within lab setting

Explain “correlation does not equal causation”

• Correlation may indicate relationship between two variables, but experimental design needed to determine causality

qualitative vs quantitative methods

Qualitative: broad methodology to understand people’s lived experiences

Quantitative: Statistical methods; uses numerical data

independent vs dependent variables

dependent changes based on factors in the research design; the independent is the variable adjusted to produce a change

Richard von Krafft-Ebing

sexual pleasure was perverted; focused on “perversions” and psychopathia sexualis

Henry Havelock Ellis

neither masturbation nor homosexuality were pathological; proposed MB was healthy

Magnus Hirschfeld

one of the first to advocate for minorities; founded the Scientific Humanitarian Community and focused on homosexual and trans rights

Margaret Sanger

Founder of planned parenthood; advocate of birth control and reproductive rights; worked primarily with lower-class immigrant women; criticized for eugenics related to disabilities

Alfred Kinsey

First comprehensive survey of sexual practices in US

Margaret Mead

Studied other cultures to broaden views of sexuality; contributed to feminist movement by detailing women-dominant practices of Papua New Guinea

Masters and Johnson

helped us understand what happens to the body during sex using observational methods; first lab study

Shere Hite

feminist sex researcher; revealed stimulus of clitoris was a normal requirment for orgasm

Meatus

Opening in penis; serves for both urine and semen

Glans Penis

tip of the penis; covered by prepuce/foreskin

Corpus Spongiosum

the mass of spongy tissue surrounding the urethra, lies between the Corpus Cavernosa; keeps urethral opening open during erection to allow for passage of semen

Corpus Cavernosa

Two columns of erectile tissue in top of the penis; traps blood to maintain erection

Corona

the “head” part of the penis

Shaft

the “body” of the penis

Scrotum

sack of skins that holds the testes and other reproductive organs

Spermatic Cord

loose bundle of structures that connects the testicles to other organs

Vas Deferens

Carries the mature sperm up from the testicle

Cremaster Muscle

Able to retract or release testicles closer to or further from body to maintain ideal temperature for sperm

Seminiferous Tubules

Within the testes; where sperm begins to develop

Prostate Gland

walnut-size organ below the bladder; produces a rostrate fluid which combines about 30% semen and controls coagulation to ensure clots don’t form

Labia minora

inner, thin, hairless layer of skin; more sensitive to touch

labia majora

outer, fatty tissue and hair-containing skin

mons pubis

thin layer of fat above the main structure that acts as cushioning during sex

vaginal introitus

entrance to vaginal canal

clitoris

• clitoral glans: most visible part

• clitoral hood: skin over the glans

• most nerve endings

variation in vulva

• labia varies in color, shape, texture, and symmetry; can change shape and color over the menstrual cycle and across life spans

size and distance of clitoral glans and easiness of orgasming from penetrative sex

• smaller size and greater distance leads to a greater likelihood of an orgasm during penetrative sex

variation in penis size

• avg: flaccid 3-4in, erect 5-6 inch

• only 15% larger than 7 inches, but majority in porn are

• largely dependent on heredity

• men care more than the partners

American Academy of Pediatrics stance of penile circumcision (historical and current)

• Historically: may lower risk of penile cancer, urinary infections, HIV, SPV, genital herpes, etc., but with minimal effects and confounding evidence

• Current: asserted benefits outweigh the risks, so insurance should cover it, but decisions should be left to parents

Sunna

• removal of prepuce (skin covering near clit); most similar to male circumcision. Least extreme of vulva cutting

Excision

• removal of clitoris, sometimes some of labia minora. In between of extremeness in vulva cutting

Infibulation

• most extreme form of vulva cutting

• removal of clitoris, labia minora, and sometimes labia majora; sewing labia majora shut apart for small incisions for urine and menses. 15% vulva cutting

Phases of the menstrual cycle in order

• follicular

• ovulation

• luteal

• premenstrual

• destructive/menses

Follicular phase

• phase one

• GnRH released by hypothalamus, stimulating pituitary to create LH and FSH

• Release of LH causes ovaries to produce estrogen, causing the endometrium to thicken for pregnancy

• FSH causes growth of follicles in the ovaries, maturation of ova in the follicles, and sperm-friendly mucus begins

Ovulation

• phase two

• peak estrogen; release of GnRH, LH, and FSH

• follicles finish maturing and release ova

• cervix softens and rises to allow easier passage for sperm, and produces hospitable mucus for sperm

• max fertility window

Luteal

• phase three

• the most predictable; usually 14ish days in

• LH stimulates corpus luteum to produce estrogen and progesterone

• progesterone causes mucus to become hostile again, stops further ovulation AND prohibits shedding of endometrium

Premenstrual

• phase four

• corpus luteum degenerates, causing progesterone and estrogen levels to decline

• myometrium contractions (menstrual cramping)

Destructive/menses

• phase five

• progesterone, estrogen, FSH, and LH low; high prostaglandins

• endometrial lining sheds

• GnRH begins to rise in the end, increasing FSH in prep for a new cycle

effects of hormonal contraception on menstruation (cyclical vs constant)

purpose is to keep hormones at a consistent level, meaning ovulation and menstruation do not occur.

• cyclical: may experience “withdraw” blood, but differs from menstruation, as it does not contain shedding.

• constant: will not experience blood. First period after is usually much lighter

Dysmenorrhea

Pain during menstruation

• Primary: Caused by the act of menstruating; cramps, typical pain

• Secondary: Caused by other problems but exacerbated by period; endometriosis

PMS vs PMDD

PMS: regular symptoms of menstruation, continued debates over symptoms and timing

PMDD: severe and debilitating symptoms associated with menstruation

Journey of the sperm: Creation

1. starts in testicles in the seminiferous tubules

2. moves to the epididymis to continue maturation

3. vas deferens carries sperm to ejaculatory ducts

Formation takes 72 days, but can be replenished every 24 hours

Journey of the sperm: Ejaculation

• epididymis, seminal vesicles, and prostate empty fluid into urethral bulb

• bladder closes off

• contractions squeeze urethral bulb and propel ejaculate out

Body’s preparation for ejaculation

• High arousal triggers Cowper’s glands to produce a liquid that lubricates the urethra and neutralizes acidic urine (known as pre-cum)

• Seminal vesicles and prostate gland produce fluid to create ejaculate

make-up of ejaculatory fluid and what reproductive organs contribute to it

• 70% from seminal vesicle

• 30% fluid containing neutralizing agent for vaginal canal from the prostate gland

• less than 1% sperm

vasectomy

• cutting, clamping, or cauterizing of the vas deferens in order to stop sperm from entering ejaculate

• 99% effective; most “fails” happen from either 1) not waiting long enough before engaging in sex, or 2) in rare cases, the vas regrows together

• does not affect orgasm sensation or ejaculation ability/look

seminal vesicle

gland that provides nutrition to sperm

Epididymis

Long tube that sits on top of the testicle where sperm continues maturation and forms a thick paste with other sperm

Ejaculatory Ducts

sperm mixes with fluid from seminal vesicles

Seminal vesicles

create fluid of ejaculation; provides nutrients to sperm