Apologetics Test 1

Validity

An argument is formally valid if the conclusion follows from the premises, according to the laws of logic. An argument whose form violates the laws of logic is not valid even if the conclusion is true.

Soundness

An argument that is valid and has true premises is sound.

Cogency

An argument is cogent for a person if that person believes that it is valid and that the premises are more likely than their denial.

Logic

A science that deals with the principles and criteria of validity of inference and demonstration: the science of the formal principles of reasoning

Kalam Cosmological Argument

1. Whatever begins to exist has a cause

2.The universe began to exist

Therefore, the universe has a cause

Teleological Argument “The Argument of Design”

The design of the universe the design of the human body the existence of DNA point to a creator.

Moral Argument (LONGEST ONE) [REPRODUCE]

If there is right distinct from wrong, there must be an objective morality. If there is objective morality there must be a moral law. If there is a moral law, there is a moral law-giver. This moral law-giver must be outside humanity, or morality would be subjective.

Ontological Argument (Part 1)

1. It's possible that a maximally great being exists.

2. A maximally great being exists in some possible world.

3. If a maximally great being exists in some possible world, then it exists in every possible world.

4. If a maximally great being exists in every possible world, then it exists in the actual world.

5. A maximally great being exists in the actual world.

6. Therefore, the maximally great being exist.

Ontological Argument (part 2)

If a maximally great being possibly exists Then it MUST exist. Thus, atheists would need to prove that it is impossible for God to exist in order to disprove this argument.

What is Science?

The intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical world and natural world through observation and experiment.

What is Scientism?

The belief that only science can show objective truth. Anything that is not empirically verified by the scientific method cannot be considered true knowledge.

What is Naturalism?

The belief that there is nothing other than the physical realm. All that operates in the universe is physical, there are no spiritual beings or forces in the universe.

The Problem of Naturalism

Unless matter is eternal, where did it come from and what made it appear?

Relativism

A proposition is made true simply by our believing it for the right kind of reasons, where those reasons might include such things as our sincerity, cultural/linguistic/socioeconomic background or the beliefs of the majority of those in our community.

Inductive

The facts that lead you towards a likely conclusion

Abductive

The conclusion is taken away from observed facts

Inductive and Abductive Reasoning

These arguments have to do with “inference to the best explanation"

You can infer a logical/reasonable conclusion based on probability and hypothetical reasoning.

Deductive

Your conclusion comes "from" statements and facts.

Modus Ponens

If p, then q,p, therefore q (If Mary has a sister, then Mary is a sibling. Therefore, Mary is a sibling.)

Modus Tollens- Method Of Denying

If p, then q, , ~ therefore, ~p. (If Mary has a sister, then Mary is a sibling. Mary is not a sibling. Therefore, Mary does not have a sister.)

Hypothetical

If p, then, q. If q, then r therefore, p, then r. (If it's snowing, then it is below 32° If it is below 32°, then it's cold Therefore, if it is snowing, then it is cold.)

Disjunctive syllogism (Either- Or Argument)

Either p or q, ~p therefore, q. (Either Bill is in his apartment, or he is out. Bill is not in his apartment. Therefore, Bill is out.)

Ad Hominem

Rejecting the claim based on a fact about the person making the claim. (Michael Scott should not be the manager because he is not a Texans fan.)

Appeal to Authority

Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject s. Person A makes claim C about subject s. Therefore, C is true.

Appeal to Pity

This fallacy exploits someone's feelings of pity or guilt to make an argument. The emotional arguments do not form a rational idea or claim. ("Could you please change my grade from D to C? I worked really hard for this assignment. I even pulled an all-nighter to finish on time, and my parents will be so disappointed!")

Appeal to Popular Opinion

This fallacy occurs when someone claims that something is true because many people believe it. (All of the scientists agree with this conclusion, how can they all be wrong?)

Appeal to Probability

This fallacy occurs when someone assumes that something will happen because it is possible. (You could become president, so you probably will)

Circular Argument

An argument in which the arguer uses his conclusion as evidence for the argument. (Jones is good at communicating because he's great at talking to people.)

Equivocation Fallacy

This fallacy occurs when a word or phrase has multiple meanings and is used differently throughout the argument. ( I swear I did not rob the bank of (America), I was never by the bank (of the river)

False Dilemma

This is a fallacy in which the claim presents a limited number of options as if they are the only options. (You either go to college and get a degree, or you can never have a good- paying job.)

Genetic Fallacy

When information is accepted or rejected based purely on where the claim came from. (The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because Hitler commissioned it to be built.)

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hос

Because one event happened before another the former event caused the latter event. (I had a burger, and then I got sick, the burger must have made me sick.)

Red Herring

Introducing irrelevant or misleading information to distract from the topіc (Why did you pull me over for speeding, officer? There are worse criminals out there.)

Slippery Slope

This occurs when someone rejects an idea based on it leading to an undesirable outcome when there is little to no direct evidence that will be the outcome. (If you are 10 minutes late, tomorrow you will be an hour late, soon you will not show up!)

Strawman Argument

Misrepresenting someone's position then refuting the distorted version of the argument (Person 1: I think green should be the main color.

Person 2: We should not take advice from someone who hates the color blue!)

Tu Quoque

Rejecting an argument because of a real perceived hypocrisy. (Person 1: You should not smoke.

Person 2: This coming from someone who smokes!)

Non Sequitur

A conclusion or statement that does not logically follow from the previous argument or statement. (People died of cancer before cigarettes were invented. So cigarettes do not cause cancer.)

What is A Worldview? (REPRODUCE)

1) The sum of our ideas about reality

2) The way we judge/ interpret what happens

3) How we make decisions about what to do

(Review Game)

Natural sciences can show us mechanisms, but it does not explain agency

The Laws of Logic (REPRODUCE)

1) The Law of Identity

2) The Law of Non-Contradiction

3) The Law of Excluded Middle