APWH Unit VI: Consequences of Industrialization (The Age of “New” Imperialism) 1750-1900

Caudillos

By the 1830s, following several hopeful decades of Enlightenment-inspired revolution against European colonizers, Latin America was mostly ruled by these creole military dictators.

Neo-Colonialism

Country that displays economic dependence on another country; a country that displays so much economic independence on another country, that it seems to be a colony of the independent country

Emancipation of Serfs 1861

Alexander II in 1861 ended serfdom in Russia; serfs did not obtain political rights and had to pay the aristocracy for lands gained.

Crimean War 1854-1856

By the mid-19th century, the "Eastern Question," or what to do with the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, would be an important balance of power consideration; Great Britain and France declared war on Russia, afraid of Russian gains in the Dardanelles and Black Sea; Austria "shocked the world" with their ingratitude by not helping the Russian cause; Russians lost and had to accept the neutrality of the Black Sea; significantly, the Concert of Europe was on the way out as the great powers were fighting each other

Sergei Witte

A tough finance minister who thought that Russia's industrial backwardness was threatening Russia's power and greatness. Russia industrialized and began a program of economic modernization, founder of the Transiberian Railroad.

Bolsheviks

Led by Vladimir Lenin it was the Russian communist party that took over the Russian goverment during WWI. A group of revolutionary Russian Marxists who took control of Russia's government in November 1917

Soviets

A Russian council composed of representatives from the workers and soldiers.

Russo-Japanese War

War between Russia and Japan; Japan wins and takes parts of Manchuria under its control.

Revolution of 1905

Strikes by urban workers and peasants in Russia; prompted by shortages of food and by Russia's loss to Japan in 1905

Matthew Perry

A commodore in the American navy. He forced Japan into opening its doors to trade, thus brining western influence to Japan while showing American might.

Meiji Restoration

The political program that followed the destruction of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868, in which a collection of young leaders set Japan on the path of centralization, industrialization, and imperialism.

Zaibatsu

Large conglomerate corporations through which key elite families exerted a great deal of political and economic power in Imperial Japan. By WWII, four of them controlled most of the economy of Japan.

Selective borrowing

Using some traditions from another culture, but discarding others

Cecil Rhodes

British entrepreneur and politician involved in the expansion of the British Empire from South Africa into Central Africa. The colonies of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) were named after him.

King Leopold II of Belgium

Hired Stanley to explore the Congo River basin and arrange trade treaties with African leaders- set off Britain, Germany, and France to do the same

Social Darwinism

The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle.

White Man's Burden

A poem by British poet Rudyard Kipling commenting on American imperialism. It created a phrase used by imperialists to justify the imperialistic actions the U.S. took. The idea that many European countries had a duty to spread their religion and culture to those less civilized

Sepoy Rebellion (Sepoy Mutiny)

Nationalist Movement against foreign influence and the British East Indian Company - Rebellion by Indian soldiers against British imperialism triggered over biting a bullets greased with animal fat

Indian National Congress

A movement and political party founded in 1885 to demand greater Indian participation in government. Its membership was middle class, and its demands were modest until World War I. Led after 1920 by Mohandas K. Gandhi, appealing to the poor.

Favorable balance of trade

This was the ideology that most states used to gain the most money from their exports by increasing the amount of finished materials while decreasing the amount of raw materials

Trade deficit

situation in which a country imports more than it exports

Opium Wars

Wars between Britain and the Qing Empire (mind 1800s), caused by the Qing government's refusal to let Britain import Opium. China lost and Britain and most other European powers were able to develop a strong trade presence throughout China against their wishes.

Treaty of Nanjing

1842, ended Opium war, said the western nations would determine who would trade with China, so it set up the unequal treaty system which allowed western nations to own a part of Chinese territory and conduct trading business in china under their own laws; this treaty set up 5 treaty ports where westerners could live, work, and be treated under their own laws; one of these were Hong Kong.

Spheres of Influence

Areas in which countries have some political and economic control but do not govern directly (ex. Europe and U.S. in China)

Taiping Rebellion/Uprising

(1850-1864) A revolt by the people of China against the ruling Manchu Dynasty because of their failure to deal effectively with the opium problem and the interference of foreigners.

Boxer Rebellion

A 1900 Uprising in China aimed at ending foreign influence in the country.

Berlin Conference of 1884

Every country who wanted a part of Africa attended, and the continent was divided so no one would get into a conflict over the land. The rights of Africans were disregarded.

Liberia and Ethiopia

The only two African nations to remain free of European control during the period of imperialism.

Afrikaners/Boers

Descendants of the Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony in southern Africa

Artificial Borders

Borders of colonies and thus later independent states of Asia and Africa were drawn by Europeans and thus did not reflect the wishes of ethnic groups of these nations.

Cash-crop agriculture

Agricultural production, often on a large scale, of crops for sale in the market, rather than for consumption by the farmers themselves.

Western-educated elite

The main beneficiaries in Asian and African lands colonized by Western powers; schooled in the imperial power's language and practices, they moved into their country's professional classes but ultimately led anticolonial movements as they grew discouraged by their inability to win equal status to the colonizers.

Protectorate (puppet government)

a country that is controlled and protected by a more powerful country

Insurrection

a violent uprising against an authority or government

Settler colonies

Colonies in which the colonizing people settled in large numbers, rather than simply spending relatively small numbers to exploit the region; particularly noteworthy in the case of the British colonies in North America.

Bantustans

Tribal homelands established by the apartheid regime to deprive the black majority of South African citizenship

Tanzimat Reforms

Series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876; established Western-style universities, state postal system, railways, extensive legal reforms; resulted in creation of new constitution in 1876. Set to revise Ottoman law to help lift the capitulations put on the Ottomans by European powers.

Young Ottomans/Young Turks

Group of would-be reformers in the mid-nineteenth century Ottoman Empire. The Young Ottomans included lower-level officials, military officers, and writers; they urged the extension of Westernizing reforms to the political system. The Young Turks were military and civilian elites who were Turkish; they also pushed for reform of the empire but on a more nationalistic basis.

Suez Canal

A ship canal in northeastern Egypt linking the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea

What factors contributed to the development of revolutionary fervor in Russia by the beginning of the twentieth century?

-Socioeconomic inequality and rural poverty
-Rapid industrialization and exploitation of the working class
-Political repression under autocratic Tsarist rule
-Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905
-Calls for political reforms and discontent among various social groups
-Intellectual movements like Marxism inspiring revolutionary ideas
-Influence and activism of revolutionary groups like the Bolsheviks
-Cumulative factors leading to the 1917 Russian Revolution and the overthrow of the Romanov monarchy.

What limitations and obstacles to industrial development did many Latin American nations face in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? To what extent were these obstacles and limitations shaped by European colonization?

- Reliance on primary exports: Latin American economies depended on exporting raw materials, hindering diversification.
- Unequal land distribution: European colonization left land in the hands of few elites, limiting a domestic market.
- Weak infrastructure: Insufficient transportation and communication hindered trade and development.
- Foreign dominance: Imperialism and unequal trade relations stunted independent industrial growth.
- Political instability: Coups and revolutions deterred investment and long-term planning.
- Limited access to technology and capital: Dependency on foreign technology and capital hindered progress.
- Cultural legacies: Social hierarchies and governance systems perpetuated obstacles to industrialization.

In what ways did the Industrial Revolution influence nineteenth century European imperialism?

- Increased demand for raw materials and markets drove competition for colonies.
- Industrial technologies facilitated colonization and control over distant territories.
- Imperialism provided access to resources needed for industrial production.
- European powers established trade networks to support industrial economies.
- Colonies served as outlets for surplus goods and sources of cheap labor.

How did European ethnocentrism motivate European imperialism? What new, widely accepted theories and ways of thinking contributed to changing views of Asians and Africans in the nineteenth century?

- Ethnocentrism: Europeans believed in their cultural superiority, justifying imperialism as a civilizing mission.
- Social Darwinism: Applied Darwin's theories to human societies, justifying imperial domination as natural.
- "White Man's Burden": Idea that Europeans had a duty to uplift and civilize "inferior" races.
- Orientalism: Western portrayal of Asians and Africans as exotic and backward, reinforcing imperial domination.
- Scientific Racism: Pseudoscientific theories promoted racial hierarchies, deeming non-Europeans inferior.

How did European imperialists enforce their control and influence over their colonized regions?

- Military force: European powers used military strength to conquer and suppress resistance.
- Political control: Installed puppet governments and imposed colonial administrations.
- Economic exploitation: Extracted resources and controlled trade to benefit the colonizers.
- Cultural assimilation: Imposed European languages, religions, and customs on indigenous populations.
- Divide and rule: Manipulated ethnic and religious divisions to maintain control and prevent unity against colonial rule.

Why might subject people choose to cooperate with the colonial regime? What might prompt them to violent rebellion or resistance?

- Cooperation: Hope for economic opportunities or social advancement under colonial rule.
- Fear of reprisal: Threats of violence or loss of livelihood for defiance.
- Cultural assimilation: Some may adopt colonial culture for perceived benefits or survival.
- Resistance: Grievances over exploitation, loss of autonomy, or cultural suppression.
- Nationalism: Desire for independence and reclaiming sovereignty from colonial powers.
- Economic exploitation: Harsh labor conditions, taxation, or land dispossession driving rebellion.
- Cultural preservation: Resistance against forced assimilation and preservation of identity and traditions.

What were the causes of the Sepoy Mutiny (Rebellion) in India and why is it considered a significant turning point in India's history?

- Causes:
- Greased cartridges: Introduction of rifle cartridges greased with animal fat offended Hindu and Muslim sepoys' religious beliefs.
- Economic grievances: Low pay, lack of promotions, and racial discrimination among Indian soldiers.
- Cultural tensions: Resentment towards British attempts to westernize Indian society and suppress indigenous culture.
- Political discontent: British interference in local governance and disregard for Indian customs and traditions.
- Significance:
- End of East India Company rule: After the rebellion, the British Crown assumed direct control over India.
- Rise of Indian nationalism: Sparked awareness and unity among Indians against British rule, paving the way for future independence movements.
- End of Mughal Empire: The last Mughal emperor's involvement and subsequent exile marked the symbolic end of Mughal rule in India.
- Policy changes: The British government enacted reforms to address some grievances, such as the abolishment of the East India Company and the Indian Civil Service's recruitment process.

Why was India referred to as the "brightest jewel in the British crown?"

- Economic wealth: India was a major source of revenue for the British Empire due to its lucrative trade in spices, textiles, and other commodities.
- Strategic importance: India's vast territory provided a crucial foothold in Asia, facilitating British imperial expansion and trade routes to other colonies.
- Cultural significance: India's rich history, diverse cultures, and architectural wonders captivated the British imagination, enhancing its prestige as a colonial possession.
- Symbol of imperial power: Control over India symbolized British supremacy and reinforced the idea of the empire's global dominance.

What short- and long-term impact did the Berlin Conference have on the continent of Africa?

Short-term impacts:
- Arbitrary borders: European powers divided Africa with little regard for existing ethnic, cultural, or linguistic boundaries, leading to artificial nations and ethnic tensions.
- Exploitation: Colonizers exploited Africa's resources, leading to economic exploitation, environmental degradation, and labor abuses.
- Resistance: African societies resisted colonization, leading to conflicts and wars against colonial powers.
- Loss of autonomy: Indigenous African political systems and sovereignty were undermined, with local leaders often co-opted or replaced by European administrators.
Long-term impacts:
- Legacy of colonization: African countries continue to grapple with the social, economic, and political consequences of colonization, including poverty, corruption, and weak governance.
- Ethnic tensions: Artificial borders and divisions created by the Berlin Conference contribute to ongoing ethnic conflicts and instability in many African nations.
- Economic dependency: Many African countries remain economically dependent on former colonial powers, perpetuating unequal trade relations and underdevelopment.
- Identity struggles: The imposition of colonial languages, religions, and cultural norms continues to shape African societies, leading to identity struggles and a quest for cultural revival and decolonization.

Describe the unfavorable balance of trade that Europeans had with China prior to the 1840s.

- Trade imbalance: Europeans had a trade deficit with China, as they imported more goods, like tea, silk, and porcelain, than they exported.
- Silver drain: Europeans paid for Chinese goods with silver, draining their reserves and creating economic challenges.
- Limited European exports: Chinese demand for European goods was low, leading to a one-sided trade relationship.
- Chinese trade restrictions: China imposed strict regulations and restrictions on foreign trade, limiting European access to Chinese markets and exacerbating the trade imbalance.

Describe the causes and effects of the Opium Wars between England and China.

Causes:
- British opium trade: Britain smuggled opium into China to offset trade imbalance, leading to widespread addiction.
- Chinese resistance: Chinese authorities banned opium, leading to confiscation and destruction of British opium stocks.
- British retaliation: British forces attacked Chinese ports, escalating tensions and sparking the Opium Wars.
Effects:
- Treaty of Nanking: China cedes Hong Kong, opens five ports to British trade, pays indemnity, and grants extraterritoriality to British citizens.
- Humiliation and loss of sovereignty: China's defeat weakened Qing dynasty, leading to further concessions and unequal treaties with Western powers.
- Opium addiction: Chinese society ravaged by opium addiction, leading to social, economic, and health problems.
- Imperialism: Opium Wars mark the beginning of Western imperialism in China, leading to further exploitation and colonial encroachment.

In what different ways did China respond to foreign control and interference? How did the strategies adopted to address their problems reflect China's own history and culture as well as the new global order?

- Isolationism: Initially, China pursued a policy of isolation, restricting foreign trade and contact to protect its sovereignty and preserve traditional values.
- Defensive modernization: Faced with Western imperialism, China attempted defensive modernization, adopting Western technology and reforms while maintaining cultural distinctiveness.
- Boxer Rebellion: Chinese nationalists, fearing cultural and religious imperialism, revolted against foreign influence, reflecting a desire to preserve Chinese identity and resist foreign control.
- Self-strengthening movement: China sought to modernize its military and economy while preserving Confucian values, reflecting a blend of traditionalism and pragmatism in response to external threats.
- Diplomacy and negotiation: China engaged in diplomacy and negotiation to navigate the new global order, seeking to maintain independence while adapting to changing power dynamics.

What specific conditions led to the Ottoman Empire becoming known as the "sick man of Europe" by the nineteenth century? How did the responses of various groups to its problems reflect that ongoing struggle between liberals and conservatives in the Middle East?

Conditions leading to the Ottoman Empire's decline:
- Economic stagnation: Decline in trade, fiscal mismanagement, and heavy debt burden weakened the economy.
- Military defeats: Loss of territories and inability to modernize military led to military setbacks.
- Ethnic tensions: Rise of nationalist movements among subject peoples, leading to internal strife.
- Corruption and inefficiency: Decentralized governance and bureaucratic corruption weakened central authority.
Responses reflecting struggle between liberals and conservatives:
- Tanzimat reforms: Liberal reforms aimed at modernization, centralization, and equality, reflecting liberal ideals.
- Ottomanism: Attempt to promote Ottoman identity over ethnic nationalism, reflecting conservative efforts to preserve empire.
- Reformist movements: Liberals sought constitutionalism and political reforms, while conservatives resisted change to preserve traditional order.
- Revolts and rebellions: Conservative reaction to reforms, reflecting resistance to liberal ideals and desire to maintain status quo.
- Foreign intervention: European powers supported liberal reforms to weaken Ottoman Empire, reflecting geopolitical interests in the region.

Explain the political, economic, and social changes in Japan from the Tokugawa to the Meiji periods and the roots of these changes. What continuities persisted in spite of these changes?

Tokugawa Period (1603-1868):
- Political: Feudal system with shogunate rule, centralized authority, and isolationist policies.
- Economic: Agrarian economy with strict class hierarchy, limited trade with foreigners.
- Social: Confucian values, rigid social classes, urbanization, and cultural flourishing under peace.
Roots: Tokugawa consolidation of power, imposition of sakoku policy, and economic stability.
Meiji Period (1868-1912):
- Political: Restoration of imperial rule, centralization, and adoption of Western political institutions.
- Economic: Industrialization, modernization, land reforms, and integration into global economy.
- Social: Abolition of samurai class, Westernization, education reforms, and social mobility.
Roots: Meiji Restoration, exposure to Western imperialism, and desire for modernization.
Continuities:
- Strong sense of national identity and cultural pride.
- Influence of Confucian values on social structure and ethics.
- Continuation of traditional arts, literature, and religious practices alongside Westernization.