Anatomy and Physiology 2 - Final Exam

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells

Hemoglobin

red pigment

*each healthy RBC has 250 million molecules

Oxyhemoglobin

Bright red pigment

Deoxyhemoglobin

Dark red pigment

RBC average lifepsan

120 days

Cyanosis

hypoxia can lead to a bluish/purplish discoloration

Red Bone Marrow

Where all RBCs are made after birth

Vitamins and Mineral needed for healthy RBC/blood

folic acid, vitamin b12, and vitamin c

iron

leukocytes

white blood cells

granulocytes

BEN (-phils)

Basophils - heparin and histamines

Eosinophils - parasitic worms

Neutrophils - phagocytize bacteria (most numerous)

agranulocytes

M, L (-cytes)

Monocytes - become macrophages (largest WBC)

Lymphocytes - t-cells, b-cells, and NK-cells

Megakaryocytes -> thrombocytes

Megakaryocytes shatter/fragment into thrombocytes/platelets (clotting)

Most abundant blood solute

plasma proteins

most abundant plasma protein

albumins

vitamin needed for blood clotting

vitamin K

Thrombus

unwanted clot

Embolus

clot moves through the bloodstream

Embolism

Clot blocks blood flow

Pericardium

sac around heart

epicardium

part of pericardium touching heart

endocardium

lining inside heart

myocardium

muscle of the heart

auricles

ear-shaped flaps help atria hold more blood

Atria

Top chambers of the heart

Ventricles

Lower chambers of the heart

Septum

Thick wall of muscle separating the right and left sides of the heart

Apex

Lowest part of the heart

Superior/Inferior venae cavae

largest veins

Aorta

largest artery

Tricuspid valve

right AV valve

Bicuspid valve

left AV valve

Ischemia

Decreased blood flow

Infarction

Decreased blood flow then tissue death

Angina pectoris

chest pain

Myocardial Infarction

death of heart muscle

Fibrillation

The small myocardium contracts in an uncoordinated and chaotic manner

Tachycardia

Above 100 BPM

Bradycardia

Below 60 BPM

Flutter

250-350 BPM

Age-related changes are most apparent where?

Arteries

Flow of blood through the heart

Superior/inferior venae cavae, right atrium, right AV valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary arteries, lungs, pulmonary veins, left atrium, left AV valve, left ventricle, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.

Lymphatic vessels similar to the veins of the cardiovascular system

Lymph

Aided in circulating through its vessels by the movement of skeletal muscle

Right lymphatic duct draining

drains lymph from the right side of head/neck/chest, plus the right shoulder and arm

Thoracic duct

In the central portion of the body, drains lymph from the rest of the body

Lymphangitis

Lymphatic vessels inflamed due to bacterial infection, red streaks appear under the skin

Lymphadenitis

inflamed lymph nodes

Thymus gland

in mediastinum. T-cells mature here with the help of hormones in a process called thymosis. Mature T-cells distinguish self from non-self

Spleen

White and red pulp. Both contain lymphocytes and macrophages. Worn-out RBCs are filtered out in the red pulp.

Innate immunity

nonspecific defenses or immunity

Fast

Adaptive immunity

Specific defenses or immunity

Slow

Innate Mechanical Barriers (1st line of defense)

intact skin, mucous membranes, cilia, hair, tears, sweat, urine, etc.

nonspecific and external

Innate Chemical Barriers (2nd line of defense)

Nonspecific and Internal

phagocytosis, NK cells, inflammation, fever

B Cells

When the immune system is activated, they differentiate into memory cells and plasma cells

Plasma cells

Produce the y-shaped proteins called antibodies (immunoglobulins). Antibodies combine with the antigen on the pathogen and mark the pathogen for destruction by phagocytosis

Active Immunity

The person's own body makes their antibodies

Passive Immunity

The person recieves the antibodies made by someone else

T1 Hypersensitivity Reaction

Allergy

T2 Hypersensitivity Reaction

Blood

T3 Hypersensitivity Reaction

Autoimmune disorders

T4 Hypersensitivity Reaction

Delayed hypersensitivity reaction (ADHD)

Tonsils superior to inferior

Pharyngeal (adenoids), palatine (tonsillectomy), lingual

Parotid gland

largest, thinnest secretions

Submandibular gland (under lower jaw)

Mix of parotid and sublingual

Sublingual gland

Under tongue, thickest secretions

Deglutition

swallowing

Esophageal hiatus

Opening in the diaphragm for the esophagus to pass through

Hiatal Hernia

Fundus moves through the esophageal hiatus

Lower esophageal/cardiac/gastroesophageal sphincter

The esophagus joins the stomach

Pyloric/gastroduodenal sphincter

Pyloris joins the duodenum

Most important gastric digestive enzyme?

Pepsin

Pepsin begins as what molecule?

Pepsinogen

Parietal cells

make intrinsic factor

Where is intrinsic factor made?

Stomach

Where is intrinsic factor used?

Small intestine

What does intrinsic factor absorb?

vitamin B12

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Release stimulated by consumption of proteins and fats. Stimulates pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes and the gallbladder to contract and release bile.

Liver

Largest internal organ; detoxifies. Makes cholesterol, urea, bile, and plasma proteins. Converts excess carbs to fats; stores glycogen, Fe (iron), vitamins A, D, B12; helps with breakdown/recycling of worn out RBCs.

In liver, insulin

stimulates liver cells to convert glucose to glycogen

in liver, glucagon

stimulates liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose

Carb digestion begins where?

mouth

Protein digestion begins where?

Stomach

Triglyceride/lipid digestion begins where?

Small intestine

VLDL and LDL (bad cholesterol). high in ___ and low in ____?

Lipids, proteins

HDL (good cholesterol), high in ____ and low in ___?

Proteins, lipids

T or F: HDL picks up cholesterol from tissues and transports it to the liver?

True

Where is the appendix located?

Right lower quadrant

Glycogenesis

In liver, form glycogen from glucose

Glycogenolysis

In liver, break down glycogen into glucose

Lipogenesis

Extra glucose stored as glycogen

Gluconeogenesis

Make glucode from non-carbohydrate sources (proteins/fats)

Essential

Must be obtained from diet

Complete proteins

Adequate amounts of all essential amino acids

Incomplete proteins

Not adequate amounts of all essential amino acids

Hormone that stimulates adipocytes to store fat?

Insulin

Leptin

Hungry

Ghrelin

Not hungry

How long can a healthy person live without food?

50-70 days (liar)

External respiration

In/out breathing

Internal respiration

Gas exhange