Unit 1 & 2

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to believe you could have predicted an event after it happens.

How does overconfidence bias us?

It makes us overestimate our knowledge or accuracy.

Why do we find order in random events? What are the benefits/costs?

Our brains seek patterns. Benefit: Helps survival. Cost: Superstitions/false conclusions.

What is the scientific method?

A process of testing hypotheses through observation, experimentation, and analysis.

What is a theory? How does it differ from everyday meaning?

Scientific theory = Well-tested explanation. Everyday \"theory\" = Guess.

What is a hypothesis? How does it relate to theories?

A testable prediction. Hypotheses are derived from theories.

What is replication? Why is it important?

Repeating a study to confirm results. Ensures findings aren’t flukes.

Which methods do psychologists use for description?

Case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys.

What is a case study?

In-depth analysis of an individual/group.

What are the benefits of case studies?

Rich detail; useful for rare phenomena.

What are the concerns of case studies?

Not generalizable; potential bias.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in natural settings.

Benefits of naturalistic observation?

Real-world validity; no lab artificiality.

Concerns of naturalistic observation?

No control over variables; observer bias.

What is survey research?

Collecting data via questionnaires.

Benefits of surveys?

Quick, large samples.

Concerns of surveys?

Wording effects; social desirability bias.

What is random sampling? What problem does it address?

Selecting participants randomly from a population. Addresses sampling bias.

What is a correlation? What does it tell us?

A measure of how two variables relate. Does not imply causation.

What can correlation tell us about causation?

Nothing! It only shows a relationship (could be coincidence or a third variable).

What can experiments tell us about causation?

Experiments (with controlled IVs) can infer cause-effect.

In an experiment, what are the experimental and control groups?

Experimental = Receives treatment; control = No treatment (baseline for comparison).

What is random assignment? What does it do?

Randomly placing participants in groups. Minimizes confounding variables.

What is the placebo effect? How do researchers control for it?

Improvement due to expectations. Controlled with double-blind procedures.

What is an independent variable (IV)?

The manipulated factor.

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

The measured outcome.

What are confounding variables?

Extraneous factors that could skew results.

What is informed consent?

Participants must know risks/benefits before agreeing to a study.

What is debriefing?

Explaining the study’s purpose and addressing participant concerns afterward.

Why are informed consent and debriefing important?

Protect participants’ rights and well-being; ensure ethical research.

What does the 'hot hand in basketball' study examine?

Whether streaks of successful shots are real or due to chance.

How do genes explain both human similarities and human diversity?

Genes create our universal human traits (similarities) while variations in genetic expression and environment contribute to individual differences (diversity)

What do twin and adoption studies aim to do?

They aim to disentangle the effects of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on behavior and traits.

What are identical twins? What do they have in common? What differs?

Identical (monozygotic) twins develop from one fertilized egg, sharing 100% of genes. They differ in epigenetic marks and life experiences.

What are fraternal twins? What do they have in common? What differs?

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins develop from two separate eggs, sharing ~50% of genes (like siblings). They differ in genetic makeup and environment.

What do twin studies tell us about autism spectrum disorder?

Twin studies show higher concordance rates in identical twins, suggesting a strong genetic component.

What behaviors have twin studies shown to have a genetic component?

Intelligence, personality traits (e.g., extraversion), mental health conditions (e.g., schizophrenia), and risk-taking behaviors.

In adoption studies, what two groups are important?

Adopted children vs. biological parents (genetics) and (2) adopted children vs. adoptive parents (environment).

What have adoption studies demonstrated about personality?

Personality traits (e.g., openness) are more similar to biological parents, suggesting genetic influence.

Where does parenting (nurture) make a difference?

Values, attitudes, education, social skills, and religious beliefs.

What is temperament? When does it appear?What is temperament? When does it appear?

a person’s emotional reactivity; it appears in infancy and is influenced by genetics.

Does a baby’s temperament persist across the lifespan?\

Yes, studies show temperamental traits (e.g., shyness) often remain stable into adulthood.

What is heritability?

The proportion of variation among individuals in a trait attributable to genetics (range: 0–100%).

Q: What does “40% heritable” mean?

40% of observed differences in a trait (e.g., height) within a group are due to genetic differences.

How does heritability change with environments?

Heritability increases in uniform environments (genetics matter more) and decreases in varied environments (environment matters more).

What is epigenetics?

The study of how environmental factors affect gene expression without altering DNA sequence.

What are epigenetic marks?

Chemical modifications (e.g., methyl groups) that turn genes "on" or "off" in response to environment.

 How do nature and nurture interact?

Genes create predispositions, but environment shapes how/when genes are expressed (e.g., stress triggering genetic mental health risks).

When does parenting have the greatest effect?

In extreme environments (e.g., abuse/neglect vs. enriched support) or for culturally specific traits (e.g., politeness).

What is peer influence?

Socialization effects from peers (e.g., friends, classmates) on behaviors, interests, and attitudes.

 What areas are influenced by peers?

Fashion, slang, music preferences, and risk behaviors (e.g., smoking).

What is culture?

Shared behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions passed down among groups.

What are cultural norms?

Rules for expected and acceptable behavior in a culture (e.g., personal space, eye contact).

What is an individualist?

 

Someone from a culture that prioritizes personal goals, independence, and self-expression (e.g., U.S., Canada).

What is a collectivist?

Someone from a culture that prioritizes group harmony, interdependence, and duty (e.g., Japan, Kenya).

individualism

 

Values autonomy, achievement, and personal rights.

collectivism

Values social cohesion, modesty, and group loyalty.