Exam 1 - Mass Comm.

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What are some reasons we should study the media?

It is ubiquitous, and if it is impossible to avoid, why not learn more about it! Mass media is everywhere, and most people have easy access to digital media (streaming platforms, social media, Spotify, podcasts, connected TV, etc), all in their phones

Convergence

The coming together of computing, telecommunications, and media in a digital environment. Technological, economic, and cultural ____ all come together to further the consumption of multiple forms of mass media.

Technological Convergence

Specific types of media, such as print, audio, and video, all converging into a digital form

Economic Convergence

The merging of the Internet & telecommunication companies with traditional media companies.

Cultural Convergence

International media being easily and efficiently accessed faster than ever before. Economic and technological convergence allow for this convergence to occur.

Consolidation

A process whereby traditional media companies have grown fewer and much larger in the past fifty years through mergers and acquisitions

Big 4 of Consolidation

Disney, Warner Bros. Discovery, Comcast, & Paramount currently own 90% of the media

Oprah Winfrey

“The Queen of all Media;”The most influential black woman in the world & America's only black multibillionaire (richest black person in America)

“Oprah Effect”

When she discusses a book on a segment, obscure titles quickly become bestsellers. Success from successfully bridging traditional media to online media

Implications of Convergence:

1. Media organization

2. Media type

3. Media content

4. Media distribution

5. Media audience

6. Media profession

7. Attitudes and values

Media Organization

In the world that predated convergence, media content was created and published or broadcast on predetermined schedules by centralized ____

Media Type

Distinctions between ____ is not so clear anymore; listeners can choose how they want to view content, such as in a podcast or video.

Media Content

Users have more control over what they are viewing; for example, hyperlinked content allows a viewer to explore a story in a nonlinear narrative.

Media Use

Fewer and fewer places on the globe are truly isolated; technology is used to reach captive audiences

Media Distribution

The Internet enables audiences around the world to participate in a dialog about global events and issues

Media Audience

In the age of convergence, audiences now more easily and quickly communicate with each other and with those who create mass-communication content via social media, email, online forums, and other interactive media. In addition, they can create the content themselves and reach far larger audiences with less expense than was possible with traditional media. They are generally not anonymous because they can be tracked through usernames or IP addresses.

Media Profession

Divisions between print, electronic journalists, and between advertising and public relations practitioners will fade. In addition to writing effectively, more newsrooms today expect reporters to use video and audio to tell stories.

Attitudes and Values

Changes in audience interactions and the ability for almost anyone to potentially be a broadcaster have had repercussions for companies. Because most people on the web do not physically make contact with each other
and know one another only through their online interactions and communication,
establishing a sense of trust has become crucial.

Oligopoly

An economic structure in which a few very large, very powerful, and very rich owners control an industry or collection of related industries

Hyperlink

Clickable pointer to other online content

Digital Native

A term coined by Marc Prensky (2001) for a member of a younger generation that has grown up with and consequently is very comfortable using digital media and adapting to rapid technological changes

Digital Immigrant

An individual who grew up with the analog media era, and who generally has more trouble adapting to new digital technologies, despite perhaps a desire to use and understand them 

Digitization

The process that makes media, computer-readable

Wiki

A website that lets anyone add, edit, or delete pages and content

Viral Marketing

Promoting a product, service, or brand online through word of mouth, usually via online discussion groups, chats, and emails

Peer-to-peer (P2P)

The basis of file-sharing services, a computer communications model and network whose computers are considered equal peers who can send, store, and receive information equally well

User-generated Content (UGC)

Content created by the general public for distribution by digital media

Produsers

Audiences who are no longer simply consumers but also produce content

Citizen Journalism

The gathering and sharing of information by public citizens, particularly via mobile and social media, sometimes via traditional media

FOMO - “Fear of Missing Out”

The feeling of when we see friends’ social media posts saying that are doing something more exciting than what we are doing and that we are missing out on that experience/important group interactions

Behavioral Targeting

Advertisers tracking individuals’ web-browsing behavior to provide ads that closely match the topics of sites visited or searches made

Cookies

Information that a website puts on a user’s local hard drive so that it can recognize when that computer accesses the website again. ____ allow for conveniences like password recognition and personalization

Interpersonal Communication

Communication between two or more individuals, often in a small group, although it can involve communication between a live speaker and an audience

Mass Communication

Communication to a large group or groups of people who remain largely unknown to the sender of the message

Medium

A communication channel, such as talking on the phone, texting, or writing back and forth in a chat room

Synchronous Media

Media that takes place in real time and requires the audience to be present during the broadcast or performance, such as live TV/radio

Asynchronous Media

Media that do not require the audience to assemble at a given time, such as printed materials and recorded audio & visual

Time Shift

Recording of an audio or video event for later listening or viewing

Blog

Short for weblog, a type of website in which a person posts regular journal/diary entries, with the posts arranged chronologically

Pedagogical Media

Pedagogy = “to teach,” we are learning from the media. This is how trends derive: We see influencers doing something we think is cool (“trendy”), so we copy it to seem cool as well (now following a “trend”)

4 Functions of the Media

Surveillance, Correlation, Cultural Transmission, Entertainment

Surveillance Function

The role that journalism plays in sending information out about processes, issues, events, and other developments in society. Celebrities are products of ____ (job of celebrities: for us to know who they are). _____ creates celebrities by telling us (receivers) who these people are

Correlation Function

How events and issues are interpreted and given meaning to help individuals understand their roles within the larger society and culture. The “Editorial”/ persuasive function of the media —> Ex. News, ads, public relations. Element of opinion/persuasion. Brand building happens here. 

Cultural Transmission Function

The transference of the dominant culture, as well as its subcultures, from one generation to the next (favors the dominant culture) All media participates. Can help immigrants adjust to cultural changes.

Entertainment

The intriguing, attention-grabbing component of media. What people think of most. Can contain stereotypes about various groups, wittingly or unwittingly.

3 Mass Communication Models

Shannon & Weaver Model (1949), Schramm-Osgood Model (1954), Mass Communication Digital Model

Product Placement

A form of advertising in which brand-name goods or services are placed prominently within programming content that is otherwise devoid of advertising, demonstrating the convergence of programming with advertising content.

• Segmented placements in TV or films where a product’s logo is turned to face the camera and can be clearly seen in the frame of the shot

Superstation

A local TV station that reaches a national audience by beaming its programming nationwide via satellite → local cable systems

Binge-watching

Watching a television series, usually on a streaming service, over several hours at a time

Media Literacy

The process of interaction and critical thinking/analysis of media content. This is done by considering its particular presentation, underlying political/social messages, and ownership/regulation issues that could affect what is presented and question what form

Melissa Zimdars

Merrimack College → Kept a list of popular but unreliable news sites and posted it publicly, and got a lot of criticism due to cognitive dissonance

Visual Literacy

Analyzing what visual images mean. Always important because there are elements like icons everywhere. ____ occurs BEFORE media literacy (kids learn logos before they even know how to read!)

Film literacy / Editing / multi-media literacy

Understanding the basic building blocks of how we put visual, moving, multimedia together

Digital/technological literacy

Keeping up and understanding both contemporary (new) and older forms of technology

Semiotics

The study of signs and symbols

Fundamentals of Media Literacy

Motivation Awareness and Framing

3 Types of Media Literacy

Visual Literacy, Film/Multi-Media Literacy, Digital/Technological Literacy

Echo Effect

A phenomenon that occurs when people surround themselves with online voices that echo their own, reinforcing their views and the belief that those opinions are in the majority, when in reality, they probably aren’t

Media Grammar

The underlying rules, structures, and patterns by which the media presents itself and is used and understood by the audience

Actualities

Edited audio clips from interviews with people

Voice-over

An unseen announcer/narrator talking while other activity takes place, either on the radio or during a TV scene

Rush Limbaugh

Conservative commentator → father of today’s politically oriented talk show format

Laugh Track

A television sitcom device that generates prerecorded laughter, timed to coincide with punchlines

Hypertext

Text online linked by HTML, coding to another web page or website or to a different part of the same web page

Robert McChesney

Founded the Free Press to promote media reform and to weaken the power of corporate media giants

Media Oligopoly

A marketplace in which media ownership and diversity are severely limited and the actions of any single media group affect its competitors substantially, including determining the content and price of media products for both consumers and advertisers

Media Bias

A real or perceived viewpoint held by journalists and news organizations that slants news coverage unfairly, contrary to professional journalism’s stated goals of balanced coverage and objectivity. Separate idea of fair & balanced —> Niche belief vs. mainstream belief; Difference from being objective

Critical Media-Literacy Skills

What is the purpose of the media content? Consider the source of the media. Examine the framing of media content. What stereotypes are presented? Question the media ecosystem. Make the media!

Information Overload

The difficulties associated with managing and making sense of the vast amounts of information available to us.

“Mean World Syndrome”

Part of a cultivation analysis in which George Gerbner detected that people who watch more TV and have lower media literacy levels tend to believe the world is more violent and scary than it actually is. Conducted through media diaries. Effects: own more weapons in the home, news being the most violent TV show

The Dimensions of Media Literacy

Cognitive, Emotional, Aesthetic, Moral

Cognitive Dimension

The question of: “Can I intellectually process this information?” Includes linguistic and technological literacies.

Emotional Dimension

The question of: “How does it make me feel?” Are the feelings impeding my understanding of the text critically or intellectually?

Aesthetic Dimension

The question of: “Does this media text succeed on an artistic level? And does that matter?”

Moral Dimension

The question of: “What are the value systems imparted by this media text? Do I agree with them?” Ability to have opposed views on what the morals of a movie are, and still be reading it correctly 

Levels of Media Literacy

High & Low —> Study by James Potter, who then formed them into dimensions (Cognitive, Emotional, Aesthetic, Moral)

Fundamentals of Media

Motivation Awareness (Message form & Media Limitations), Framing (Media Myth), 

Media Literacy is…

A PROCESS

Motivation Awareness

What is the purpose of the media content?

1. Why was it made?

2. Who is sending the messages and why?

3. Tons of motivations 

   1. Persuade to POV

   2. Sell us something

   3. Inform us

   4. Intellectually (cognitive) and emotionally inform me - so we feel smart, mad, scared, etc

      1. Important when we persuade someone, they could take action rather than just buy a thing

• Especially important when we discuss political ads and advertisements

Message vs. Messenger

• Complicated! (because people are!)

  • Ex. Ice T

    • Made a song named “Cop Killer” and played a Cop on TV for years

• Who is making the media, and is there a disconnect?

  • Does it string irony?

Message Form

The same message plays out very differently in one-on-one communication and mass communication

1. Ex. Celebrity iPhone hacks

   1. Early in the cloud - bad security → celebrity pictures nude 

      1. A message that is intended between two people or a small group plays out differently than if it is released to the public

1. Easy to forget that the wider public can see all social media (it is all public), and have lost their jobs due to it

2. Would this media (thing) have a different meaning if it were taken out of its current context and put into a different context?

Media Limitations

Different media platforms have different media abilities and limitations

• Ex. Gravity & chaffing - superhero outfits in comic books → movies (it had to be suited for a real body)

• When you move from medium to medium, you have to change things for it to fit

  • You can tell a story in comic books that will last 50 years, couple of hours in a movie

Framing of Media Content

Motivation analysis: Using language to subtly shift the POV to push an idea of what/how viewers should think

1. Ex.

   1. Inheritance Tax → Death tax

   2. Gay marriage → same-sex marriage (or marriage equality)

   3. Tax cuts → tax relief

   4. Undocumented workers → Illegal Aliens

Media Myth

Another term: “Moral Panic.” Each new media form inspires its own moral panic

• What is the motivation of this? Is it trying to make me feel scared or mad?

  • Sometimes valid, but others, build it up into more than it really is

  • Is this anger/fear justified?

Advertising

An ancient form of human communication designed to inform or persuade member of the public about some product or service

• Non-dialogic (not a conversation, but one-way communication), creates sales, does not have a management role, and the messages created are paid for “media time”

• Should work together and be in constant communication with PR

Rating

Used in broadcast media to explain the number of households that watched a particular show

Cost Per Thousand (CPM)

Standard unit for measuring advertising rates for publications based on circulation

Performance-based advertising

Any form of online ad buying in which an advertiser pays for results rather than for the size of the publisher’s audience or the CPM

Search-engine marketing

Paying for certain keywords to show up high in rankings in a search engine, such as Google

Madame Restell

Performed illegal abortions and distributed contraceptives in the mid-1800s based on well-known folk remedies for 40 years without any medical training

• Dubbed “The Wickedest Woman in New York” by the press & tourist guides → kept posting advertisements in the New York Herald to defend her business

Volney B. Palmer

Bought space in newspapers at a discounted rate and then sold that space to individual advertisers at a higher rate

• When newspaper ads appeared nationally distributed in monthly magazines (1860s)

Created the first advertising agency in 1841 & the long-standing business model for the industry, providing advertising clients with circulation data and copies of the ads in addition to deducting an ad-agency commission from the advertising publication fee as compensation for his efforts

Ad-agency commission

A percentage amount of the cost of an advertisement taken by the advertising agency that helped create and sell the ad

N.W. Ayer & Son

Founded in 1869; Bought Palmer’s firm and the trend toward consolidation began; Standard ad-agency commission: 15% of the total media billings

Tony Schwartz

Most talented advertising professionals in the audiovisual realm

• Famous for “The Daisy Spot” 

  • A 1964 advertisement considered among the most powerful political ads ever aired

  • Suggested Barry Goldwater (republican presidential candidate) would likely get the US into a nuclear war

Infomerical

“Paid programming” —> A thirty/sixty minute television show that advertises a product and that usually involved a celebrity spokesperson and customer testimonials. Usually appear late at night, and are especially made to get people to buy items from it 

• New York’s WOR-TV was the first station to air one in 1969

Fairness Doctrine

Adopted by the FCC in 1949, requiring broadcasters to seek out and present all sides of a controversial issue they were covering

• Discarded by the FCC in 1987

• In 1969 the U.S. Supreme Court applied it to cigarette advertising

Main purpose of all Mass Media

To deliver as big of an audience as possible to advertisers. This means advertising is the engine that drives most ____.

What must you know to be a successful marketer or public relations professional?

Rhetoric is crucial to know. Rhetoric is the art of persuasion, and it coincides with logic & grammar. 

Johannes Gutenberg

In 1439, he invented the movable type printing press

William Caxton

In 1468, he issued the first advertisement to promote one of his books (a list of rules for clergy to determine when Easter falls each year)