The Bolsheviks and the power struggle following the death of Lenin

What was the immediate impact of Bolshevik consolidation of power

• Destruction of all political opposition to the Bolsheviks within the country as a result of the Red Army’s victory in the Civil War

  • Although small-scale resistance would continue into the late 1920s, these would be overcome and posed no risk to the regime

• Victory in the Civil War had come at the expense of mass starvation and economic loss due to War Communism

  • This persuaded Lenin to introduce the New Economic Policy in 1921

Long-term impact of Bolshevik consolidation of power

• Development of the Soviet system under the rule of Stalin, which would continue under other Communist leaders until 1991

How did consolidation of Bolshevik power impact politics and security of regime

• the party changed from an open forum of discussion to a rigid acceptance of the party line

  • The roots of Stalin’s dictatorship can be found in the early 1920s and by 1924, Russia had become a one-party dictatorship

    • The party dominated the government and all decisions were made in the Politburo

    • The party was no longer democratic, but highly centralised, bureaucratic and hierarchal

      • However, the further away one was from Moscow, the looser party control was and the more independently local Soviets and party organisations operated

What steps had lead to the party becoming so centralised

• By 1921, the situation in the country was so bad that major intra-party division was occurring

  • The Workers Opposition, led by Alexander Shlyapnikov and Alexandra Kollontai called for more workers’ control, less militarisation of society and opposed Trotsky’s idea of making the trade unions organs of state

    • They ultimately sought a return to the freer days of early 1918

• Lenin was angered by these divisions, and at the 10th Party Congress in 1921, he called for a ban on ‘factionalism’

  • Once the party had accepted a policy, all party members had to accept it, and the price of opposition was expulsion

• While the ban on factionalism occurred, the Nomenklatura system was being put into place

  • All key party/government jobs were allocated by the party, which rewarded loyalty over talent

  • This led to the development of a party elite, which Stalin would exploit to consolidate his power

What other developments pointed to the development of a dictatorship

• In the early 1920s, several intellectual critics were deported

• All publications had to be approved by the Main Administration of Affairs of Literature and Publication before publication

• The first show trials came in 1921, that led to the death of eleven socialist revolutionaries

• The party tightened its pressure on the church, seen in the creation of the Union of the Militant Godless in 1921, who were permitted to pillage and expropriate church property

What was the most significant development that occurred in 1922 that transformed Russia into a dictatorship

•  the Cheka became the GPU under Felix Dzerzhinsky

  • The Cheka had been a temporary extraordinary commission; it was now a permanent organ of the state

  • Originally, the purpose of this development was idealistic, to remove careerists, factionalists and corrupt from the party

  • The GPU had the power to investigate the political ideals of anyone

  • While the party controlled the secret police, Stalin would use it to control the party later

When was the ‘Treaty of the Creation of the USSR’ signed

December 1922

What did the final years of Lenin’s life look like

Lenin’s final years were difficult, suffering from severe headaches and insomnia and three strokes in the last two years of his life

• By late 1923, he had difficulty moving or even speaking

• On 24 January 1924, he suffered a final stroke and died

Despite Lenin’s prolonged illness, no plans had been made for deciding on a successor. What was assumed to occur after his death?

• Some believed there would be a form of collective leadership

• Others, that an individual, most likely Trotsky, would take over

Why was Lenin’s will not published?

Not to cause doubt on the future of the party, as he had made positive and negative comments on every leading party figure, not indicating any one person to assume leadership

What were the reasons behind Trotsky, Zinoviev, Bukharin and Stalin to lead the party, but also the limitations that prevented this from occurring

• Trotsky seemed most likely to follow Lenin, charismatic, intelligent and largely responsible for the Red victory in the Civil War

  • Although admired by Lenin, disliked by many for his arrogance

• Zinoviev was the boss of the Petrograd party and had a strong party support

  • However, he had opposed Lenin’s call for the seizure of power in 1917 and did nothing to distinguish himself in the Civil War

• Kamenev had the Moscow party machine behind him and had been Lenin’s deputy for a while, and within the party from the beginning

  • He had also opposed Lenin’s call for the seizure of power in 1917

• Bukharin was one of the younger party leaders and was popular

  • Lenin admired Bukharin as a Marxist theorist, but had done little else

• Stalin had built up a powerful base in the party bureaucracy, although he seemed the least likely to assume leadership

  • Taciturn and lacking charisma, he was not well-liked by Lenin

Isaac Deutscher (power struggle)

• Two years after the end of the Civil War, Russian society had already lived under Stalin’s virtual rule, without being aware of the ruler’s name”

Stalin had accumulated an enormous amount of power and influence within the party by 1922, having become

• Commissar of Nationalities

• Commissar of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate

• A member of the ruling Politburo

• General Secretary of the Communist Party

Although Stalin’s party roles were crucial in the post-Lenin struggle for power; most figures never saw Stalin as a potential leader

Why was this?

• Stalin was a “grey blur”, a bureaucratic figure doing essential but unexciting work

  • Nikolai Sukhanov: “a grey blur which flickered obscurely and left no trace”

• Trotsky, the charismatic Commissar for War, Red Army hero, was expected to follow

Why did Trotsky’s fame, and Stalin’s obscurity work in Stalin’s favour?

• Trotsky was admired, but also envied and hated by many because of his arrogance toward those deemed to be his intellectual inferiors

• Stalin was underestimated by party colleagues; few members held him in high regard, but equally few feared him or suspected his aspirations for leadership

Robert Service and Oleg Khlevniuk have taken issue with Deutscher’s view, suggesting that Stalin’s leading role in the Politburo, especially his attack on Trotsky

This indicates that

• others recognised his strengths and shared Lenin’s concerns

Suspicions about Trotsky’s dictatorial ambitions led to the creation of a triumvirate in 1923 which comprised of

Zinoviev, Kamenev and Stalin

Key Stages of the Power Struggle

1922	Stalin is appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party
1923	Stalin has accumulated an enormous amount of bureaucratic power
1924	January: Lenin dies Stalin tricks Trotsky into missing Lenin’s funeral Hurts Trotsky’s reputation Stalin feverishly works to appear as Lenin’s disciple Pallbearer at the funeral and begins to establish Lenin’s cult May: Stalin survives the reading of Lenin’s will The triumvirate defeats Trotsky at the 13th Party Congress when he raises objections to the growing bureaucratisation and centralisation of the party Trotsky becomes isolated Zinoviev and Kamenev bring up Trotsky’s pre-1917 disagreements with Lenin to show his anti-Bolshevism Trotsky’s Lessons of October highlights Zinoviev and Kamenev’s opposition to the 1917 seizure of power Stalin allows left-wing rivals to fight
1925	Trotsky loses his position as Commissar of War Stalin forms a right-wing alliance with Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky Bukharin supports the continuation of NEP and gradual industrial development This is in opposition to the left, Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev, who support rapid industrialisation Trotsky rejects Kamenev and Zinoviev’s attempts at alliance Stalin proposes his idea of “Socialism in One Country” Zinoviev and Kamenev lost every fight at the 14th Party Congress
1927	Zinoviev, Kamenev and Trotsky are accused of forming a United Opposition and appealing to the masses They are charged with factionalism and are expelled from the party
1928	The country is facing a major economic crisis Food shortages are appearing, and experts realise NEP has run its course This is exactly what Trotsky predicted
1929	Stalin turns on previously right-wing party allies and calls for massive and rapid industrialisation and a hard line against peasants These are the same policies Trotsky had been promoting Following the 1929 Party Congress, Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky were forced out of the Politburo By the end of 1929, Stalin had become the undisputed leader of the Soviet Union Expulsion from the party was not a permanent punishment, and they were often allowed back in Trotsky had been expelled from the country This allows for Stalin to fill key party positions with his own appointments Stalin now pushes for industrialisation and collectivisation of the Five-Year Plans

What motivated Stalin to become a key player in the party?

• Stalin was an opportunist, driven by a desire to thwart rivals rather than relentlessly pursue the leadership of the party

• Stalin’s colleagues were contemptuous of him because of his Georgian-accented Russian

  • Driven by a desire to protect his position within the party

Westwood (power struggle)

“Although Stalin seemed to win every trick, it is unlikely that he followed a long-term plan. He did not need to; he could stand back and watch his rivals dig their own graves, occasionally offering his spade to one or other of them”

Why was Stalin able to achieve supreme power

1. Control of the party machine

2. Death of Lenin

3. Surviving Lenin’s will

4. Development and abuse of the Cult of Lenin

5. Trotsky’s personality flaws

6. Luck and opportunism

7. Stalin’s understanding of the mood of the country

8. Stalin’s ability to play the political game

9. Stalin’s good fortune in being a grey blur

Why was Stalin’s control of the party machine significant in achieving power

• Russia was evolving into a one-party dictatorship, with all decisions made in the Politburo

  • Stalin recognised that whoever controlled the party controlled the nation

• The real power was in the party bureaucracy, which implemented the decisions in the Politburo, not popularity

• The party had become more centralised, bureaucratic and hierarchical

  • Eg, the ban on factionalism in 1921 at the 10th Party Congress

  • Whoever controlled the party machine determined party policy

• In 1919, Stalin was appointed as Commissar of Nationalities, dealing with Russians, Georgians, Ukrainians, Armenians, Tartars, Azerbaijanis, etc

  • Other leading figures looked down on these minorities and did not want to be involved with them

  • Stalin used this position to build contacts in border areas, whom he could count on in future party conflicts

• In 1919, Stalin also became the Commissar of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate

  • Its purpose was to remove inefficiency and corruption from the party

  • The inspectorate, Rabkrin, checked every branch of government and trained the civil service elite to run the country

  • Through this position, Stalin supervised the personnel and workings of the entire government

• Stalin was also a member of the Politburo

  • This became the real government of the country, and Stalin took care of the day-to-day management of the party

  • Stalin was the only permanent link between the Politburo and the Organisation Bureau, Orgbureau, which directed party workers wherever they were needed following Politburo decision

• Stalin’s most important role was as General Secretary in 1922

  • Coordinated overlapping branches of the party, which had expanded since 1917

  • While most thought it dull, Stalin was responsible for promotions, demotions and appointments

    • By the mid-1920s, thousands owed their positions to Stalin

2x Isaac Deutscher (power struggle)

“His attitude was just that mixture of patience, patriarchal firmness, and slyness that was needed. The Politburo relied on this and refrained from interfering”

“Like none of his colleagues, he was immersed in the party’s daily drudgery and in all its kitchen cabals”

Why was Lenin’s death significant in Stalin’s rise to power

• By 1923, Lenin and Stalin’s personal relationship had broken down, and Lenin formally stated he would only deal with him on a formal basis

  • In his will, Lenin called for Stalin to be removed as General Secretary, making his death timely

  • Stalin was not emotionally affected when Lenin died, unlike others who were

Why was surviving Lenin’s will significant in Stalins’s rise to power

• May 1924 was a crucial moment for Stalin’s future when Lenin’s will was read out before the Central Committee, as he urged for Stalin’s expulsion

  • Stalin knew that if the will was read to the entire Party Congress, Lenin’s word would be respected

    • Zinoviev saved Stalin by arguing that Lenin’s fears were unfounded, as party members were able to work with Stalin

      • The informal triumvirate allowed Stalin to work against Trotsky, the perceived threat

    • Although not many agreed, no one dared to disagree, and the will was not distributed

Isaac Deutscher (power struggle)

“Stalin could now wipe the cold sweat from his brow. He was back in the saddle, firmly and for good”

Why was the development and abuse of the cult of Lenin significant for Stalins’ rise to power

• Stalin manipulated the legend of Lenin for his own purposes, despite Lenin being a modest man who spurned adulation and extravagance

  • Stalin began developing a cult of Lenin, raising him to divine status

    • Lenin’s image appeared everywhere, and his words were constantly quoted to justify a party policy or decision that Stalin wanted

    • Lenin’s words were the ultimate authority

  • Stalin’s manipulation of the Leninist cult allowed him to present himself as totally loyal to Lenin and his memory

• Stalin tricked Trotsky into missing Lenin’s funeral, while he was recovering from an illness in the south, by telling him the wrong date

  • Trotsky’s absence at the funeral increased dislike, appearing arrogant

  • Stalin was the main pallbearer at the funeral

  • Lenin was embalmed and placed in a tomb in Red Square, Moscow

  • Stalin presented himself as Lenin’s disciple, while Trotsky presented himself as Lenin’s equal

Why was Trotsky’s personality flaws significant in his rise to power?

• The Bolsheviks looked to the lessons of history to guide their current revolution

  • The French Revolution resulted in the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte

    • The most likely candidate for this was Trotsky

• Trotsky lacked patience and did not suffer fools gladly

• Found it difficult to deal with intellectual inferiors

• Spent Central Committee meetings reading French novels due to his arrogance and disdain

Why was luck and opportunism significant in Stalin’s rise to power?

• Lenin’s illness and premature death were of great benefit to Stalin

• Trotsky’s absence from Moscow at the time of Lenin’s death was fortunate for Stalin to destroy Trotsky’s reputation

• Zinoviev’s speech to the Central Committee saved Stalin politically

Why was Stalin’s understanding of the mood of the country significant in his rise to power?

• Stalin was more perceptive than his ideologically driven rivals

  • NEP (introduced in 1921) was necessary as the Russians wanted a period of calm and consolidation after wars and revolutions

    • The Russian people did not want to continue with Trotsky’s “permanent revolution” and rapid industrialisation

  • Stalin’s theory of “Socialism in One Country” struck a chord with the party and the country’s strong patriotic sentiments

    • Russia could build socialism on their own, without the help of the more advanced West

  • This supported his ideological shift in 1928, calling for rapid industrialisation, as Russians were genuinely stirred by patriotism

    • Plans to catch up to the West in a decade were inspiring

Why was Stalin’s ability to play the political game significant in his rise to power?

• Stalin used key positions within the party bureaucracy to fill the Congress with loyal followers

  • Stalin was assured of success during crucial votes

  • This is why Trotsky’s position deteriorated so rapidly

• Ban on factionalism meant that Stalin’s opponents were not allowed to campaign against policies once Congress had passed them, otherwise lead to expulsion

• Stalin was skilful at manipulating political alliances and was unscrupulous and opportunistic when it came to pursuing policy

Why was Stalin’s good fortune in being a grey blur significant in his rise to power?

• Nobody suspected him of ambition, and allowed him additional responsibilities and power

  • Comrades mocked him as “Comrade Card-Index”

• Stalin always had time to talk to people, keeping his views to himself but listening patiently, whether that be to Bukharin or a peasant

Isaac Deutscher

Martin McCauley

Helene Carrere d’Encausse

“The mask of Bonaparte seemed to fit Trotsky only too well. Indeed, it might have fitted any personality with the exception of Stalin. In this lay part of his strength”

“Stalin was moderate and methodical, not to say pedestrian, but he was the only one skilled at building tactical alliances, and this put him head and shoulders above the rest”

“Menzhinsky clearly showed that the police recognised another type of authority, that of the Party apparatus, and thus of the General Secretary”