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Flashcards covering key vocabulary from the Anatomy and Physiology lecture notes.
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Anatomy
Study of the structure of the human body.
Physiology
Study of the function of the human body.
Anatomy and Physiology are…
Complementary + never entirely separable
Inspection
Looking at the appearance of the human body.
Palpation
Feeling a structure with the hands.
Auscultation
Listening to sounds produced by the body.
Percussion
Tapping on the body, feeling for resistance, and listening to the emitted sound for abnormalities.
Dissection
Cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships; usually done on a cadaver.
Comparative anatomy
Study of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution.
Radiology
Branch of medicine specializing in imaging.
Gross anatomy
Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye.
Histology (microscopic anatomy)
Examination of tissues with a microscope.
Histopathology
Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease.
Cytology
Study of the structure and function of cells. Fine detail (ultra structure) may be resolved using an electron microscope
Neurophysiology
Physiology of the nervous system.
Endocrinology
Physiology of hormones.
Pathophysiology
Mechanisms of disease.
Comparative physiology
Study of different species to learn body functions + basis for understanding human physiology and development of new drugs and medical procedures
Hippocrates
Greek physician; “Father of medicine”. Established a code of ethics. Urged physicians to seek natural causes of disease rather than blaming the on gods and monsters.
Aristotle
Believed diseases has supernatural or physical causes. Called supernatural causes of disease THEOLOGI and natural causes PHYSIOLOGI. believed complex structures were built from simpler parts.
Metrodora
Greek physician and first woman to publish a medical textbook.
Claudius Galen
Physician to Roman gladiators. did animal dissections because cadavers use was banned. Saw science as method of discovery. Teachings were adopted as dogma in Europe Middle Ages.
Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon)
Jewish physician who wrote 10 influential medical texts.
Avicenna (ibn sina) from Muslim world
“The Galen of Islam”. Combined Galen and Aristotles findings. Wrote The canon of medicine, used in medical schools for 500 years.
Andreas Vesalius
Catholic Church relaxed restrictions on dissection of cadavers. Performed his own dissections rather than a barber-surgeon. Published first atlas of anatomy, De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) in 1543.
Revolutionized the teaching of gross anatomy
What embodies the greatest amount of scientific information ?
A theory
By the process of ___, a medical researcher predicts what the result of a certain experiment will be if his or her hypothesis is correct.
Deduction
Blood pH averages 7.4 but fluctuates from 7.35 to 7.45. The pH of 7.4 is considered the ____ for this variable.
Set point
William Harvey
Realized blood flows out from heart and back to it again.
Galileo
Patented the compound microscope as a by product of his work with telescopes. Tube with lenses at each end.
Marcello Malpighi
First to use compound microscope to study biological material; observed blood cells, capillaries, and capillary blood flow.
Robert Hooke
Made many improvements to the microscope. Specimen stage, illumination, coarse and fine focus controls. First to see and name 'cells'. Published Micrographia in 1665
Antony van Leeuwenhoek
Invented a simple (single-lens) microscope with great magnification to look at fabrics (200X). Published observations of blood, lake water, sperm and tooth scrapings
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
Concluded that “all organisms were composed of cells”. First tenet of cell theory
Scientific method
The process of performing science, including careful observation, logical thinking, and proper analysis of observations and conclusions.
Inductive method
Process of making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations and predictions.
What is proof in science?
Reliable observations repeatedly confirmed. Not falsified by any credible observation.
Hypothetico-deductive method
The investigator formulates a hypothesis—an educated speculation or possible answer to the question.
Falsifiability
If something is claimed scientifically true, there must be specific evidence to prove it wrong.
Sample size
Number of subjects in a study.
Controls/control group
resembles treatment group but does not receive treatment.
Psychosomatic effects
Effects of subjects state of mind on their physiology, tested by giving placebo to control group
Experimenter bias
Avoided with double blind method, neither subject nor experimenter knows of subject is part of control or treatment group.
Statistical testing
Provides statement of probability that treatment was effective
Peer review
Critical evaluation by other experts in the field.
Scientific fact
Information that can be independently verified.
Law of nature
Generalization about the way matter and energy behave.
Theory
An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses. Summarizes what we know and suggests directions for further study.
natural selection
Explanation of how species originate and change through time. Charles Darwin was an influential biologist who presented the theory of how evolution works. Books published in 1859 and 1871
Evolution
Change in genetic composition of population of organisms. Ex. Development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics
Natural selection
How evolution works.
Selection pressures
Forces that promote reproductive success of some individuals more than others. Ex. Predators
Adaptations
Inherited features of anatomy and physiology that evolved in response to pressures and that enable organism to succeed.
Early primates were…
Arboreal, mobile shoulders to move among branches, opposable thumbs and prehensile hands to grasp branches and manipulate objects. Forward facing eyes with stereoscopic vision (depth perception). Color vision to find ripe fruit. Large brain to allow memory and efficient food finding.
Human adaptations shared with other primates
Standing and walking on two legs. (Bipedalism) which helps sport predators, carry food, tools, infants. Adapted to living on grassland as Africa became hotter and drier, skeletal and muscular modifications, changes to family structure.
Australopithecus
Bipedal primate genus that lived more than 3 million years ago
Homo genus
Appeared 2.5 million years ago, taller, larger brain and tool-making.
Homo sapiens
Originated in Africa 200,000 years ago
Reductionism
Theory that large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components.
What’s this
The body’s structural hierarchy-human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity
Evolutionary medicine
The study of how natural selection and adaptation affect human health, disease, and the body’s vulnerabilities. Helps explain why we get sick and how traits evolved.
Organism
A single, complete individual
Organ system
A group if organs with a unique collective function. Ex. Circulation, respiration, digestion
Organ
Structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a function, can have organs within organs
Tissue
Similar cells and cell products forming a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function.
Cell
Smallest unit to carry out all basic functions of life
Organelle
Structure within a cell that carry out a function.
Molecule
Particle composed of two or more atoms.
Atom
Smallest particle with unique chemical identity.
Reductionism
Theory that large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components. Some properties cannot be predicted from individual parts
Holism
“Emergent properties” occur as we ascend the levels of organization; these cannot be predicted from the properties of individual parts alone.
Situs inversus
Left-right reversal of organ placement
Why are clinical and biological death not equivalent
Clinical death- occurs when the heart and breathing stop, but revival is possible.
Biological death- happens when brain cells die from lack of oxygen making revival impossible.
Organization (Characteristic of life)
Living things exhibit a higher Level of organization than nonliving things,
Cellular composition (characteristics of life)
Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells
Metabolism (characteristics of life)
The sum of internal chemical change
Responsiveness (excitability)
Ability to sense and react to changes in environment
Movement (characteristics of life)
Movement of entire organism or of substances within the organism
Homeostasis (Characteristics of life)
Maintaining relatively stable internal conditions
Development (Characteristics of life)
Change in form or function over time
Differentiation (Characteristics of life)
Transformation of unspecialized cells into cells with a committed task
Growth (Characteristics of life)
Increase in size; occurs through chemical change
Reproduction (Characteristics of life)
Organisms produce copies of themselves, pass genes to offspring
Evolution (Characteristics of life)
Genetic change from generation to generation, occurs due to mutations (changes in DNA structure) observed in population as a whole, not a single organism.
Homeostasis
The ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and maintain stable internal conditions. Loss of this control causes illness or death
Claude Bernard (1813-1878)
Noted fairly constant internal conditions despite changing external conditions ex. Temperature
Walter cannon (1871-1945)
Coined the term homeostasis
Homeostasis in body temperature Example (negative feedback)
If too warm, skin blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism)
•If too cold, skin blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism)
Homeostasis of blood pressure example (negative feedback)
Rise from bed, blood drains from head and BP falls in this region. Detected by baroreceptors that transmit signals to cardiac center of brain stem. Cardiac center transmits signals to heart to increase heart rate, raising BP and restoring homeostasis
Negative feedback
Mechanism that keeps a variable close to set point; the body senses a change and reverses it.
Receptor (feedback loop)
Structure that senses change in the body
Integrating (control) center (baroreflex and feedback loop)
processes the sensory information, makes a decision and directs the response.
Effector (baroreflex and feedback loop)
Cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis ex. The heart
Positive feedback
A self-amplifying cycle that leads to greater change in the same direction as opposed to the corrective action of negative feedback. A normal way of producing rapid changes, can sometimes be dangerous
Gradient
Difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points.
About 90% of our current medical terms come from…
1,200 Greek and Latin roots
Terminologia Anatomica (TA)
Provides standard international anatomical terms.
Acronym in medical terminology
pronounceable words formed from the first letters or series of words
The importance of spelling in medical terms
Be precise, many medical terms are spelled similarly but have very different meanings. Health care demands precision in order to maintain patient safety.
Radiography (X-rays)
Over half of all medical imaging. Penetrates tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body, dense tissue appears white.