AP Psych 2nd Semester Review

encoding failure

memories are not properly transferred to the brain because of divided or unfocused attention

semantic codes

using meaning, context, or words to remember something

shallow levels of processing

involves things like acoustic or visual codes - saying something aloud or picturing it - and making you less likely to remember

deep levels of processing

involves things like semantic codes and make you more likely to remember

short-term memory

includes things in your conscious mind at any moment (also known as working memory), limited to 7 items (+/- 2)

serial position effect (primacy-recency effect)

we are more able to recall information at the beginning and end of a list

semantic memory

general knowledge we've accumulated throughout our lives that we share with people from the same language or culture; no time of occurrence

episodic memory

events in our own life; unique to everyone and includes time of occurrence

procedural memory

learned skills that don't need conscious recollection (swimming, bike riding) and are retrieved or established without effort through automatic processing

context-dependent memory

remembering something when you are in the same setting

recognition

memory retrieval by identifying something you've experienced before

recall

memory retrieval where you reconstruct previously learned material

misinformation effect

when witnesses are exposed to misleading information about an event they are even more likely to misremember because their schemas (conceptual frameworks or expectations) change

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

when learning new things, most information you forget occurs rapidly, then the forgetting rate levels off with time and the rest of the information is stable in memory

proactive interference

an earlier memory blocks you from remembering related new information

retroactive interference

new information blocks related memories learned earlier

anterograde amnesia

if you damage your hippocampus you can remember things before the damage but cannot retain new information afterwards

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

trying to remember something but not quite being able to do so

Method of Loci

walking around a neighborhood (or house) and associating each thing you need to memorize with a landmark (or item in your house) and then retracing steps

distributed practice (spacing effect)

spacing out your learning and studying a little at a time with breaks to help improve memory

divergent thinking

involves more brainstorming, creativity, or free-flow of thought

metacognition

thinking about thinking - being aware of your cognitive processes

algorithm

a fixed, step-by-step procedure for solving a problem

heuristics

rules of thumb, or shortcuts to solve a problem

availability heuristic

estimating the probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

representativeness heuristic

estimating the probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event

gambler's fallacy

presuming a balancing nature to odds

mental set

a habitual strategy or pattern of problem-solving

functional fixedness

the inability to imagine new uses for familiar objects

framing

the way a problem is posed, which affects perceptions and decisions

confirmation bias

searching for information that supports your preconceptions and ignoring information that refutes you

hindsight bias

falsely reporting after the fact that you correctly predicted the outcome of an event

phoneme

the smallest unit of sound in language

morpheme

the smallest unit of meaning in language

syntax

the arrangement or order of words to form meaningful sentences

bilingualism

acquiring two languages, including vocabulary and grammar rules, easier to do at younger ages

drive-reduction theory

your needs drive you to act until they are satisfied and you return to homeostasis (body's balanced state)

sensation seekers

people who like experience seeking, thrill or adventure seeking, disinhibition, or who have boredom susceptibility

Yerkes-Dodson law

we perform most activities best at a moderate level of arousal, but low levels are best for a difficult task and high levels are best for an easy one

incentive

an external stimulus or reward that motivates behavior

intrinsic motivation

engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or fulfill an internal drive

extrinsic motivation

engaging in activities that reduce biological needs or help us gain external incentives

lateral hypothalamus (LH)

produces hunger signals and tells you to eat

ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

tells you that you are full and should stop eating

Paul Ekman's universal emotions

happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust all have the same facial expressions regardless of culture

display rules

where, when, and how we express our feelings and emotions can depend largely on culture and experience

facial feedback hypothesis

emotions are the perception of physiological changes - if you smile, you will feel happy (and if you frown you will feel sad)

reliability

a test's ability to give similar results under similar circumstances

test-retest reliability

test scores should be stable over time in the same group of people

validity

the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

predictive validity

how well a test will predict future performance in a given area

percentile system

establishes score norms - if you score in the 60th percentile it means you did better than 60% of people who took a test

normal curve distribution

68% fall within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% fall within two standard deviations, and 99% fall within three

100

average IQ score

15

one standard deviation on a scale of 100 (like with IQ)

IQ formula

mental age divided by chronological age and multiply by 100 (not meant for adults)

Flynn effect

IQ scores have been steadily improving across generations due to better education, technology, diet, etc.)

factor analysis

questions scattered throughout a test can be pulled out to analyze by category

projective test

they encourage you to respond freely and give your own interpretations of stimuli, supposedly revealing aspects of your unconscious (like the Rorschach and TAT)

psychoanalytic/psychodynamic psychologists

believe the unconscious shapes your personality

repression

pushing painful thoughts, urges, or memories from the conscious to the unconscious

projection

when inner feelings project outside the self and are assigned to others

internal locus of control

believing you have control over situations in your life (considered better to have this)

external locus of control

believing fate is determined by forces beyond your control

self-efficacy

our view of our ability to succeed

conditions of worth

conditions others put on us that we must meet to regard ourselves positively

unconditional positive regard

valuing loved ones for who they are

Big Five Traits

openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

distress vs. eustress

negative stress resulting from anxiety or pressure, vs. positive stress resulting from motivating challenges

alarm

first stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome, where the sympathetic nervous system activates fight-or-flight

resistance

second stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome, involves adapting to the stressor and dealing with the challenge

exhaustion

third stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome, involves the parasympathetic nervous system activating, your body's resources depleting, and being vulnerable to illness

approach-approach conflict

choosing between two attractive alternatives

avoidance-avoidance conflict

choosing between two unattractive alternatives

approach-avoidance conflict

one goal or event has both positive and negative effects

multiple approach-avoidance conflict

multiple options have both positive and negative effects

positive psychology

focuses on positive emotions and character traits, promotes strengths and virtues that foster well-being and resilience

problem-focused coping

trying to alleviate stress directly by confronting the problem, trying to solve it or work things out

emotion-focused coping

when we don't believe we can change a situation we meditate, seek therapy, or reach out to loved ones

broaden-and-build theory

argues that everyday positive emotions broaden awareness, which helps people build skills and strength over time

abnormal behavior

maladaptive, inappropriate, and unjustifiable; considered a disorder when it interferes with everyday life and relationships

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

involves feelings of inadequacy, avoiding dealing with problems, and having unrealistic worries and fears

panic disorder

severe anxiety turns into panic attacks

specific phobia

an irrational fear of a particular object or situation - considered an anxiety disorder

social anxiety disorders

fear of social situations

agoraphobia

fear of being in a public place

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

an obsession with an uncontrollable pattern of thoughts and repeated compulsive behavior

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

if you live through a trauma you relive it through recurring nightmares and involuntary flashbacks

major depressive disorder

having a lowered mood and feeling worthless and having diminished pleasure or interest in many activities

bipolar disorder

alternating between phases of mania and depression

dissociative amnesia

losing memory of personal events or information caused by a traumatic event

schizophrenia

characterized by delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations (perceptions with no external cause) and being out of touch with reality

dopamine hypothesis

an excess of dopamine at brain synapses correlates with schizophrenia

diathesis-stress hypothesis

People may inherit a genetic predisposition to a disorder but it will not develop unless exposed to a certain environment (bad family life, traumatic events, etc.)

narcissistic personality disorder

being overly self-preoccupied and unrealistically self-important

dependent personality disorder

having an excessive need to be taken care of, lacking self-confidence and being clingy

antisocial personality disorder

you are irresponsible, have shallow emotions, and lack a conscience and empathy

autism spectrum

marked by a lack of responsiveness to others, impaired communications, limited activities and interests, repetitive behaviors

placebo effect

having an expectation that therapy will make someone better often results in one feeling better

critiques of psychoanalytic or psychodynamic therapy

the theories are not falsifiable (they could not be disproven in an experiment)