Unit 3: Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology

Scientific study of how and why people change over the course of their life

-Cognitive, emotional, social and physical domains

Nature & Nurture

How our genetics (inherit) and our life experiences (nurture) interact to shape our development

Continuity

Developmental changes that are slow and steady (continuous)

Stages

Refers to development occurring in distinct, separate steps or phases

Stability & Change

Helps us understand how and why people remain the same in some ways but also evolve and adapt in others as they go through different life stages

Longitudinal Research

A method where the same group of individuals is studied repeatedly over an extended period to observe changes or developments

-This approach helps identify long-term trends and the effects of early experiences on later stages

Cross-Sectional Research

A method that examines different groups of participants at a single point in time to compare them

-Basically a “snapshot”

-Allows researchers to  compare differences and similarities across age groups to infer developmental changes

Psychosocial Development

A lifelong process of social and emotional growth

-Theory that individuals progress through a series of stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to a major aspect of personality

Trust and Mistrust

1st EE Stage of psychosocial development, occurring in infancy

-birth to 18 months

-infants learn to develop trust or not w/ people and world 

-they do this through reliable care and affection

-sets foundation for future relationships

Autonomy and Shame & Doubt Stage

2nd EE Stage

-occurs in early childhood 

-18 months to 3yrs

-focuses on toddlers developing a sense of personal control and independence

-achieved through encouragement and freedom to explore

-crucial for developing personal control and self-esteem

Success in Autonomy and Shame & Doubt Stage

Self sufficiency and confidence

Failure in Autonomy and Shame & Doubt Stage

Feelings of shame and doubt

Initiative and Guilt Stage

3rd EE Stage

-Children develop a sense of purpose by taking initiative in activities and social interactions

-Occurs during 3 - 6 years

Success in Initiative and Guilt Stage

Sense of leadership and ambition

Failure in Initiative and Guilt Stage

Burden of guilt when failing or overstepping

Industry and Inferiority Stage

4th EE Stage

-Where children develop a sense of competence by learning new skills in school and other activities, or they can develop feelings of inferiority if they are unable to meet expectations

-Occurs during 6-12 years

Success in Industry and Inferiority Stage

Pride, mastery, success

Failure in Industry and Inferiority Stage

Inadequacy and self-doubt

Identity and Role Confusion Stage

5th EE Stage

-Occurs during adolescence 12 - 18 years

-People start exploring different beliefs, roles, and values to form a cohesive sense of self, or “identity”

-If they fail this stage they are generally unsure about their role in society, beliefs, and values

Success in Identity and Role Confusion Stage

Well-defined personal identity

Failure in Identity and Role Confusion Stage

Confusion about personal identity and future roles

Intimacy and Isolation Stage

6th EE Stage

-Young adulthood (19-40)

-Individuals focus on forming deep, meaningful relationships to avoid feelings of isolation

Success in Intimacy and Isolation Stage

Strong, lasting connections, commitments

Failure in Intimacy and Isolation Stage

Loneliness, emotional isolation, weak support social support network

Generativity and Stagnation Stage

7th EE Stage

-Primary psychological conflict of middle adulthood (ages 40-65)

-Generativity: Contributing to next generation and society through parenting, mentoring, or productive work

-Stagnation: Characterized by self-absorption and a lack of purpose

Success in Generativity and Stagnation Stage

Sense of fulfillment, achievement, and care for others

Failure in Generativity and Stagnation Stage

Feelings of unfulfillment and being stuck, disconnection

Integrity & Despair Stage

8th EE Stage (Final stage)

-Occurs in late adulthood (around age 65 and up)

-Individuals reflect on their lives and must come to terms with whether they have lived a full, meaningful life (integrity) or if they have significant regrets (despair)

Success in Integrity & Despair Stage

Virtue of wisdom, satisfaction

Failure in Integrity & Despair Stage

Feelings of bitterness and fear about death, regret, despair

Prenatal Development

3 Stages of prenatal development

-40 week process

-1st stage, germinal (1st 2 weeks)

-2nd stage = embryonic (weeks 3-8)

-3rd stage = fetal (week 9 to birth)

-single-cell zygote > fetus

Teratogens

Agents like viruses, drugs, or chemicals that can harm a developing embryo or fetus during prenatal development, leading to physical defects or developmental issues

-Ex: Alcohol, cocaine, lead, mercury

Reflexes

Automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli that aid in survival and don’t require conscious thought

Rooting Reflex

An involuntary response in newborns where they turn their head toward a touch on the cheek or mouth and open their mouth to find something to suck

-Helps infant locate a breast or bottle for feeding

-Typically disappears by about 4-6 months of age

Maturation

Genetically determined, biological process of growth that enables orderly changes in behavior, independent of experience

Developmental Milestones

Covers physical, cognitive, and social-emotional growth across the lifespan

Sensitive Period

A timeframe in which a child is particularly receptive to learning certain skills or acquiring specific abilities, making learning more efficient and effective

Fine Motor Coordination

The ability to control and coordinate the small muscles in the hands and fingers for precise movements, such as writing, drawing, or buttoning a shirt

Gross Motor Coordination

Refers to the development of large muscle movements, such as walking, running, and throwing

Visual Cliff

Tests for depth perception in infants and animals

-Researchers use a glass-covered table with a “cliff” illusion to see if subjects hesitate to crawl over the apparent drop, demonstrating that they can perceive depth

-Shows that this ability emerges around the time infants begin to crawl

Puberty

The biological transition that marks the start of adolescence

-Growth spurt

-Development of primary and secondary sex characteristics

-Maturation of reproductive organs

-Triggered by activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gondal axis and the resulting release of sex hormones

Adolescent Growth Spurt

A period of rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty, driven by hormonal changes

-Starts earlier in girls (around ages 8-13)

-Boys around (10-16)

Menopause

Natural cessation of menstruation and the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

-Typically occurs between the ages of 45 and 55 and involves decreased estrogen production, leading to potential physical, cognitive, and emotional symptoms

Sex

The biological and genetic differences between males and females

-Biologically influenced characteristics, male, female, intersex

X Chromosome

Sex chromosome found in both males and females, and its inheritance determines the sex of a child

-Females typically have XX

Y Chromosome

Sex chromosome found only in males that contains a gene, typically the SRY gene, which triggers the development of testes and can influence the sexual differentiation of the brain through hormone production

-Passed from father to son

Primary Sex Characterisitcs

Reproductive organs and structures that are directly involved in reproduction

-Develop during puberty

-Maturation of the ovaries and testes

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Non-reproductive traits that develop during puberty, distinguishing males and females

-Deeping of a male’s voice, development of breasts and wider hips in females, and the growth of pubic and underarm hair in both sexes

Gender

Sociocultural roles, behaviors, and expectations considered appropriate for males and females

Sexual Orientation

Refers to a person’s enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others

Menarche

Girls first menstrual period, signaling beginning of puberty and ability to reproduce

Spermarche

Boys first production of sperm, marking the start of puberty and the ability to reproduce

Gender Identity

Refers to an indivudal’s internal sense of being male, female, etc

Gender Roles

Culturally defined behaviors and expectations for males and females, developed through a combination of biological and social factors

Gender Typing

The process by which children develop a sense of gender and adopt the behaviors, values, and roles deemed appropriate for their gender in their society

Ecological Systems Theory

Child’s development is influenced by multiple layers of environmental systems

-Include the immediate family (microsystem), larger community structures like sounds (exosystem), and overarching cultural or societal norms (microsystem)

-Each layer interacts to shape the child’s growth

Microsystem

Child’s immediate surroundings

Mesosystem

Relationship between micro system elements

Exosystem

Broader community indirectly impacts the child

Macrosystem

Cultural norms, economic conditions, and societal beliefs

Chronosystem

Major life transitions

Authoritarian Parenting

A strict parenting approach where parents enforce high expectations and rigid rules

-They prioritize obedience and discipline, often relying on punishment with limited warmth or responsiveness to the child’s needs

-Children are expected to follow rules without question

Permissive Parenting

Relaxed approach to parenting where parents show warmth and responsiveness but have few rules and low expectations

-They avoid enforcing strict boundaries allowing children significant freedom and allowing them to indulge in their desires

Authoritative Parenting

A balanced approach to parenting combining high expectations with warmth and support

-Parents enforce clear rules and encourage indepence while being responsive and open to children’s needs and opinions

Temperament

Innate traits that influence how children respond to their environment, including their activity level, emotional reactivity, and adaptability

-These early-emerging characteristics are thought to form the basics for later personality development

Imprinting

A rapid and instinctive form of learning where certain animals, particularly birds, form strong attachments to the first moving object they see shortly after birth and hatching

Contact Comfort

The sense of security and emotional relief derived from physical touch, particularly between infants and caregivers

Separation Anxiety

A distress response experienced by infants or young children when separated from their primary caregiver

-This phase typically emerges around 8-14 months of age and demonstrates the child’s growing attachment and dependency on their caregiver for safety and comfort

Attachment Styles

Patterns of behavior that describe how children form emotional bonds with caregivers, influencing relationships later in life

-Childhood attachment styles can affect how adults form relationships w/ other adults

Secure Attachment

A pattern where children feel confident and trust that their caregiver will meet their needs

Avoidant Attachment

A pattern where children exhibit independence and avoid seeking comfort from their caregiver, often resulting from caregivers who are emotionally unresponsive or unavailable

-Children appear indifferent to separation and avoid closeness in future relationships

Anxious Attachment

A pattern where children are overly clingy and anxious about separation from their caregivers, stemming from inconsistent caregiving

-Distress when caregivers leaves, but may resist comfort upon their return

Disorganized Attachment

A pattern characterized by inconsistent or confused behaviors towards a caregiver, often resulting from trauma or abuse

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Potentially traumatic events or conditions, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction, that occurs before age 18 and can have long-term impacts on health and well-being

Social Clock

Cultural timeline that sets ages for expected key life events, like starting a career, getting married, or having children, shaping social expectations for individuals

Emerging Adulthood

Transitional life stage from late teens to mid 20s, marked by exploration and self-discovery as individuals navigate career paths, relationships, and personal identity

Adolescent Egocentrism

Stage in teenage development marked by an increased self-focus, leading to beliefs that one’s experiences are unique and that others are always observing them

Imaginary Audience

Phenomenon in adolescence where individuals believe others are constantly watching and judging their behavior, makingthem highly self-conscious 

Personal Fable

Adolescent belief that one’s experiences are unique and special, often leading to feelings of invulnerability nd an underestimation of potential risks

Possible Selves

The various versions of who individuals might become in the future, including ideal selves they hope to achieve and feared selves they wish to avoid

Social Identity

An individual’s sense of who they are based on their membership in social groups, like nationality, religion, or profession

Identity Diffusion

A state where individuals have not yet explored or committed to life choices regarding beliefs, goals, or values, often leading to uncertainty about their sense of self

Identity Foreclosure

Stage where individuals committ to goals, beliefs, or values without exploring alternatives, often adopting the expectations of parents or society

Identity Moratorium

A stage in which individuals actively explore different life paths, beliefs, and values but have not yet made a final commitment, often leading to a period of uncertainty and experimentation

Identity Achievement

The stage where individuals have explored various life paths and made firm decisions about their beliefs, values, and goals, resulting in a clear and stable sense of self

Jean Piaget

Children develop intellectually through four distinct stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational

Schemas

Mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information based on experiences with objects, events, people, or groups

-Mental shortcut to quickly process new information, but they can lead to biases and errors in judgement

Assimilation

Cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing mental frameworks, or schemas, without changing the frameworks themselves

Accommodation

Cognitive process where individuals adjust their existing mental frameworks, or schemas, to incorporate new information that doesn’t fit

Sensorimotor Stage

1st of Jean Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development, occurring from birth to about age two

-Infant’s learn about world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions, and a key milestone is developing object permanence

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched

Preoperational Stage

2nd Stage of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (ages 2 - 7), characterized by the emergence of symbolic thought and pretend play

Pretend Play

A type of play where a child uses an object to represent something else, function and abstract thinking

-Key characteristic of the preoperational stage

Parallel Play

A stage of child development where children play side-by-side with similar objects but without direct interaction, like two toddlers each building with blocks near each other

Animism

Belief that inanimate objects possess human-like qualities, such as feelings and intentions

Egocentrism

Cognitive limitation where an individual struggles to understand perspectives different from their own

Theory of Mind

Cognitive ability to attribute mental states. Like beliefs, desires, and intentions to oneself and others, and understanding that these states can differ from your own

Concrete Operational Stage

3rd stage of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, occurring approximately from ages 7 to 11, where children begin to think logically about concrete events

Conservation

Cognitive ability to understand that certain properties of an object, like volume, mass, or number, remain the same despite changes in its appearance

Reversibility

Child understands that an action can be reversed to return to its original state