Conflict Analysis and Resolutions

What is conflict?

When two parties see their interests as confronted and incompatible and become engaged in a zero-sum game. One side’s win is the other’s loss. It’s important that they perceive the other’s interests as incompatible even if they’re not.

Competition vs. conflict

Competition doesn’t mean conflict. Two parties trying to achieve the same goal may try to outdo each other

What is the goal of conflict resolution?

To try and eliminate the incompatibility to see if it’s real or change the perception over the difference.

What are the different angles for analyzing conflict?

Sociology, psychology, theology, biology, history, economy etc.

What is Hobbes’ idea of the Leviathan or state?

There must be a common power, the state, or else men will be in a permanent state of war against each other. We have a permanent inclination for war

What are the 3 main causes for human conflict?

Competition, diffidence and glory.

What are the 3 causes people invade?

To gain, for safety, for reputation. It’s like Thucydides’ reasons for war: fear, honor, interest.

How can conflict arise?

2 parties want things that are incompatible or each want some resource that’s in short supply and cannot satisfy everyone’s needs.

Locke’s belief about man and state?

Government establishes order but peace is the norm and should be. People can live together in peace and states can coexist peacefully

Mayo and Parson’s negative views on conflict

Mayo considered conflict evil to effectiveness of organizations. Parsons thought conflict was abnormal and bad for society’s stability.

Marxist view on conflict

Human history is all about class conflict. When proletariat revolt and there’s a classless society, humans will be free from conflict

Dewey’s view on conflict

Conflict forces progress and change

Simmel’s positive view of conflict

Conflict is essential to the proper functioning of groups

Organization theory on conflict

Conflict is a legit and positive indicator of effective organizational management which is essential to productivity.

How did Conflict Resolution as a field arise?

Began in political science in the ‘50s bc of MAD. It’s applicable to all sorts of kinds of relations (international, domestic, industrial etc.).

Hegel’s view on conflict

Hegel’s philosophy is dialectic (conflict of opposing forces). Every concept has an opposite and to overcome it, must reconcile opposing forces by coming to a third position: synthesis. Conflict is positive and causes transformation

What elements are required for a conflict?

Parties, Matter, Attitudes/perceptions, Actions/Behavior, Persuasion

What is matter?

The incompatible goals or issues at the heart of the conflict. Interests are opposed only when one perceives the interests of another as incompatible because conflict is zero-sum.

What are 3 dimensions of attitudes in conflict?

Cognitive, affective, behavioral

Latent conflict

Parties do not perceive interests as conflicting or are not aware of it. Perception of interests as incompatible are what make it a conflict

What are the 3 basic types of behavior?

Persuasion, coercion, rewarding

What is Johan Galtung’s conflict triangle?

Conflict is a triangle of contradiction, attitude and behavior. All 3 elements are needed for a full, dynamic conflict. If any are missing, the conflict is latent.

What are 3 kinds of violence?

Direct, structural, cultural

What are types of conflict based on parties?

Intrapersonal (man ag himself), interpersonal (individuals ag each other), intragroup (conflict within a group; like civil war), intergroup (conflict b/w diff groups)

What are types of conflict based on matter?

Affective (emotional/relationship conflict), substantive (cognitive or task conflict), of interest (disagreement over how to obtain the same goal b/w parties), of values (disagreement over ends; diff values or ideologies), goals (ex: WWII)

What are types of conflict based on perceptions?

Realistic (tasks, goals, ends) vs. non-realistic (ignorance, error)

What are types of conflict based on attitudes?

Institutionalized (follow rules and predictable behavior) vs. non-institutionalized, retributive (punishing other), misattributed (incorrect assignment of causes), displaced (argue over secondary issues)

What are some of the things conflict can arise over?

Territory, politics, ideology, legal (controversies adjusted by mutually recognized procedures).

What is the dynamic character of conflict?

Conflicts are influenced by external and internal agents which shape it in both positive and negative ways. For example: other nations may remain neutral, support one side or another or intervene directly in the conflict. The UN mediates conduct in conflicts

What are the internal dynamics of conflict?

Ex: maintaining discrete diplomatic contacts amid violence of war. Actions of parties in a conflict can make it easier or harder to resolve

What is Ramsbotham’s model on dynamic nature of conflict?

Conflict can start with initial differences that’re part of all social developments. Differences lead to contradictions which, if perceived as incompatible, can polarize parties. If conflict escalates it can lead to direct violence and then war.

What are the objective and subjective dimensions of conflict?

Rational and emotional which can help or hurt development of conflict.

How does conflict escalate?

Its intensity needs to cross a threshold without management or when both parties fuel the conflict. The issue that began conflict becomes less important than how wrong other party is. Communication ends and there’s only a negative relation.

What is the model from ‘difference’ to ‘reconciliation’ with war at the peak of the curve?

Contradiction, polarization, violence, war, ceasefire, agreement and normalization.

At what point do relationships become incompatible?

When resources necessary for survival are scarce and can’t be shared. Parties have different incompatible, values and beliefs. Have behavioral preferences that don’t work in joint action (ex: Opium Wars).

Behavioral initiators of conflict situations

Human thoughts, feelings, emotion, attitudes and personality traits. (ex: racism or sexism)

Communicational initiators of conflict situations

Lack of communication causes conflict. Partial or poor communication and result in failure of a task. (ex: too much or too little communication, too much noise)

Structural initiators of conflict situations

Structure of an organization can cause conflict. (ex: role ambiguity, lack of participation by subordinates)

What was the Great Game in the 19th century?

A conflict between Russia and the British empire over Afghanistan. Russia feared British inroads into Central Asia which was under their control while British feared Russia’s efforts to access warm sea ports on the Indian Ocean which would threaten their “crown jewel” India.

What is the importance of geography (even sans conflict)?

You’re more likely to enter into conflict with territories that are close by than far away; the advantages awarded by having control over a key territory (ex: Panama Canal) could be good motive to spark a conflict.

Is it true that today technological advances have overcome geography?

No. Human strength and tech are no match for forces of nature because moving big armies is still a challenge and fighting in extreme weather conditions (for example in the desert).

Geography is important in what senses?

Strategic, military, politically, spatial distribution of resources, peoples, physical systems

Physical geography means…

Geographical accidents, climate or natural resources.

Human geography means…

Mankind and its relation to the geographical medium: demography, spatial distribution of humans and their activity like urbanization.

Geopolitics

The mutual interaction b/w political and geographical phenomena. Considers strategic value of land and sea in context of national economic and military power and ambitions. How does geography influence political activity of actors

What does it mean that geopolitical perspective is dynamic?

Geography can help actors in the international system (ex: the Hittite Empire, had lots of iron which gave them an edge) but over time, other actors can compensate by other means (new weapons etc). Geopolitics changes balance of power

Friedrich Ratzel's geopolitical theory?

One of the fathers of modern geopolitics because he identified Germany’s political goals with the necessity for more physical territory (Lebensraum) justifying imperialism with the geographical need for resources and land.

Rudolf Kjellén’s geopolitical theory?

Coined the term in 1899, derived ideas from Ratzel: the state is an organic entity that requires living space.

Sir Halford Mackinder’s geopolitical theory?

Proposed the theory of the heartland which posited that the interior region of Eurasia is a Pivot Area (center of World-Island, later Heartland) as it covers largest landmass on Earth. If a single power controlled this area, they would achieve world domination. (Formed the basis of some imperial strategies in the 20th and 21st centuries).

What is the only way Mackinder foresaw to prevent a power from ruling the Heartland and thus dominating the world?

If there was a league of democracies to defend against an imperial superpower in the heart of Eurasia. (Basically NATO).

What is Karl Haushofer’s geopolitical theory?

Based on previous ideas, believed in organic conception of the German state and the need for growth in order to be self-sufficient. Growth meaning inevitable geographical expansion or conquering other states.

In terms of the world-island, what were Germany’s two objectives?

Dominate Russia to dominate Eurasia, destroy British naval power to get full sovereignty over world island.

What is the idea Haushofer advocated for in the ‘20s and ‘30s?

Continental panregionalism based on complementarity of resources and peoples: Pan-America, Pan-Eur-Africa, and Pan-Asia with the U.S, Germany and Japan at the core.

Problems with pan-regions system?

Could only be achieved via war, not very stable bc more likely to develop as exploited region not complementary.

How does Spykman’s theory of the Rimland apply to 20th century geopolitics?

POV of sea power, believed an Anglo-American sea power and Soviet land power could prevent Germany from controlling Eurasia and dominating the world-island

Spykman’s theory of Rimland

Eurasian coast lands are inner marginal crescent which were key to control because of: population, resources, interior sea lanes. Control the Rimland=control Eurasia=control the world.

Spykman’s Rimland vs. Mackinder’s crescent

Spykman called Eurasian coastal lands the rimland. Mackinder called it the marginal crescent on the outside of the heartland.

Geopolitical analysis gives information abt…

Geo distribution of power, interests of nation-states, functionality of territory as a political entity and alliances.

Power (geopolitical) analysis

Analyzes the geographical position of the state, its size, shape, soil, natural resources, climate, demography, dynamics and politics (kind of gov’t, judicial system, military power).

Historical (geopolitical) analysis

Analyzes the past of an entity, its relationship with geography, to understand current situation and predict future

Morphological (geopolitical) analysis

Analyzes political areas based on position, shape, size, borders, population, cities. You can analyze the geographical situation based on trade within the EU.

Functional (geopolitical) analysis

Analyzes how geographical area functions as a political unit with centralizing and consolidating forces in state

Factors to consider in analysis at a regional level

Size, shape, position, borders, neighbors, relief, climate. Demography, natural resources, social structures, communications and infrastructure

Who are the main actors in international relations (since the Treaty of Westfalia)?

Nation-states

Nation-states

A territory with clearly identified borders, population and a political organization which exercises control over that territory.

Why is size important in geopolitics?

Bc nations need a territorial base to develop. Bigger size means more resources and population so more power. But it also means more interests, neighbors and possibilities for conflict.

Territorial morphology (shape)

The shape of a nation has geopolitical consequences: compact, prorupt, elongated, fragmented, perforated, mixed

Compact state

Round or square where the distance from the center to any boundary doesn’t vary a lot. Easy to control from a central position, often political ideal (ex: Poland)

Prorupt state

Longer in length than width with an extension protruding from an otherwise compact shape. Protruding region can provide access to a resource or separate 2 states that’d otherwise share a boundary. But can also escape control or become a conflict area between states (ex: Thailand)

Elongated state

Long, narrow shape. Hard to control from a central position, bad communication and transport and more prone to internal diversity. (ex: Chile)

Fragmented state

Have at least 2 non-contiguous territories separated by water or an intervening state. Lack of territorial continuity which make it hard to control and lack of unity. (ex: Greece, UK)

Perforated state

States enclose or surround other states. May conflict with surrounding nation (ex: South Africa and Lesotho)

Kinds of position

Centrality, landlocked, coastline, chokepoints, buffers

Central position

More accessible which allows trade and exchange but also invites expansion. (ex: Germany)

Landlocked position

Difficulties getting access to the sea. Sub-Saharan Africa has most landlocked countries

Coastline position

Provides security, access to trade and allows nations to expand their influence (ex: Denmark)

Chokepoint position

States who control chokepoints have important leverage and sources of revenue (ex: Suez Canal)

Buffer position

Created to avoid 2 big powers sharing a border (ex: Belgium, Afghanistan)

Kinds of borders

International, internal, agreed, imposed, soft, hard, natural, geometric

What do borders do?

Delimitate the reach of national sovereignty and power

Natural borders

Follow natural features like rivers, lakes, drainage divides, oceans, forests

Geometric borders

Follow geographic lines (latitude, longitude), usually from decolonization which mix heterogenous groups on both sides increasing risk of conflict

Why is population important?

It’s the base of power because the bigger it is, the more power a nation has because it provides manpower for industry, economy and military. If there are too many people and not enough resources, it can lead to internal unrest

Issues of interest in population

Birth rate, age structure, ethnic diversity, diasporas, urbanization

Birth rate

Tells how fast or slow a population grows

Age structure

Number of able-bodied young population impacts economic growth factors. An aging population is when there are fewer young people who must support older people leaving the labor force

Ethnic diversity

Mono-national countries have a higher index of geopolitical power than countries with internal separatism tendencies

Diasporas

Groups of nationals of a state living abroad in communities within host nations, maintaining connection to their home nation (ex: remittances sent from diasporas)

Urbanization

Improvement in education and opportunities but more possibility for social conflict with greater political awareness

Natural Resources

Sources of wealth which allow nations to influence international environment (ex: oil in Saudi Arabia or in Russia). Leveraging natural resources against other nations to gain control in international system

Social structures

Values system, gender roles

Communications and infrastructure

Patterns of communication can be radial, reticular or linear. Infrastructure supports political unity and reinforces central authority.

Examples of practical applications of geopolitics

Competition for the Arctic, claims over the South China Sea (China vs. Taiwan vs. Philippines)

Clausewitz on war

War, left on its own, goes to extremes but because politics determine objective of war, it moderates the violence.

What factors limit violence in war?

Limited human and material resources, the rules of the international system, morals and value system of parties involved, perception of stakeholders of the conflict and its causes

What is the international system?

System of systems linked by interactions (ex: conflict) which impact one another’s decisions to the extent that they act as parts of a whole.

Parsons’s functions of social systems

Adaptation (system adjusts to external pressures), goal attainment or growth, integration with other social systems, latency/homeostasis

What is the international order?

The building structure, institutions, rules and functioning of the international system. Rules can be formal (treaties) or informal (etiquette). Change to IS doesn’t mean a change to order

Offensive realism and the international system

Lack of central authority, all powers are potentially dangerous to each other, uncertainty about others’ intentions, survival is main goal, powers are rational actors (make decisions by weighing pros and cons)

What are the 2 paradigms of how the international order works?

Realist vs. idealist