Studied by 22 people
Sociology
tries to understand and explain the relationship between people and the societies they live in.
society
the group to which you belong; it can be a small unit like the family or a large one like your country, and anything in between.
subject matter of sociology
the actions and beliefs of people in social groups, the relationships between social groups and the ways in which people's actions can change society, as well as the ways that social change in the whole society affects different social groups.
Structuralism
an approach focusing on the large-scale social structures in which people play defined roles.
Macro/micro approaches
Macro approaches focus on the large scale of whole societies, micro approaches on small-scale social interaction.
Durkheim and suicide
Durkheim said suicide is, at its root, an instance of social deviance.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Causation
A cause and effect relationship in which one variable controls the changes in another variable.
Interpretivism
a research perspective in which understanding and interpretation of the social world is derived from one's personal intuition and perspective
perspective
ways of viewing social life from different points of view.
Consensus vs. Conflict
consensus= society only functions as a result of a groups common interest/values conflict= exist in society where working class is exploited by ruling class
consensus
basic agreement on a set of shared values.
Conflict
disagreement between groups with different interests.
social conflict
When major disagreements arise about important issues such as wealth, status and power. In a society based on conflict there will be significant and important differences between groups, which may become open conflicts, and there will be no overall set of shared values held by all groups. A society based on conflict will be unstable, though there may be long periods where one group in power is able to suppress others that challenge it.
Functionalism
Emphasise social functions and ask, 'What function does this aspect of society carry out that keeps this society stable and allows it to continue?'
Functionalism view of society
Human society is like the human body. The different parts of the human body - the brain, heart, liver, skin and so on - all have jobs to do to keep you healthy. In the same way, each part of society is seen as having functions that all help the society as a whole to be healthy and survive.
Structural Functionalism
a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures
Marxism
Emerged as the most famous socialist belief system during the 19th century. Saw all of history as the story of class struggle.
the Bourgeoisie
The ruling or upper class in Marxist class theory.
the owners of wealth and property
has power and wealth and exploits and oppresses the proletariat, who are 'wage slaves'
the Proletariat
Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production
Neo-Marxism
An updated and revived form of Marxism that rejects determinism, the primacy of economics and the privileged status of the proletariat
Feminism
Argue that it is men who control society and who have wealth and power in all aspects of society - in relationships, families, the world of work, education, and so on. The control of society by men is called patriarchy. Feminist sociologists research on gender differences; for example, they are interested in why, although girls tend to do better in school than boys, it is still boys who, when they are men, will be in higher paid jobs.
Positivism
An approach to sociology favouring scientific research methods.
Quantitative data
Information that can be expressed in statistical or numerical form
Bias
Prejudice that distorts fhe truth when research is influenced by researcher's personal values.
Objectivity
Absence of bias
Factors in deiciding research topics
-interests -new developments in society -funding -if it is practical -ethical issues
Hypothesis
A theory or explanation at the start of research that research is designed to test.
Pilot study
A small scale test of a piece of a research project before the main research is started.
Survey population
All those to whom the findings of a study apply and from which the sample is chosen.
Sampling frame
A list of members of the same population from which the sample is chosen.
Common sampling frames
-electoral roll -telephone directories -school registers
Generalisability
When the findings about a sample can be said to apply to a larger group of people sharing those characteristics.
Random sampling
When each person has an equal chance of being selected.
Stratified sampling
When the sampling age is divided eg by gender/race
Quota sampling
Deciding in advance how many people with what characteristics to involve in the research and then identifying them
Snowball sampling
When one respondent puts the research in contact with others.
Sampling methods
The different ways in which samples can be created.
Ethical issues
Issues that have a moral dimension eg causing harm to participants.
Questionnaires
A standardised list of questions in social surveys
Social surveys
The systematic collection of information from a sample, usually involving a questionnaire or structured interviews.
Ethical issues in research
-causing harm to participant -informed consent -invasion of privacy -deception
Closed/open questions
Researcher gives a set of answers to each question respondent must pick from them/respondent can reply freely in their own words.
Qualitative data
Information that cannot be presented in numerical form eg attitudes or kinds of actions.
Data associated with a more humanistic approach to geography, often collected through interviews, empirical observations, or the interpretation of texts, artwork, old maps, and other archives.
Self completion questionnaires
Questionnaires completed by the respondent on their own w out researcher present.
Postal questionnaires
Self completion questionnaires mailed by post to be mailed back
Response rate
Proportion of responses received from a sample
Structured interview
An interview in which the questions are standardised and the replies codified to produce quanitative data
Telephone questionnaire
When the researcher reads out questions to the respondent over phone and the answers are recorded.
ways of improving response rate
-sending a stamped, addressed envelope -explain the research in some detail in a letter. -make questionnaire short and easy -follow up when no response -clear instructions and relevant questions -use people's names to make them feel personally involved -incentives
improving questionnaire design
-short w clear layout -easy instructions -start w short questions w simple answers -ample alternative answers -no indication of a right answer -should be abt stuff respondent knows about -avoid words that are difficilt to understand eg sociological terms
strengths of self completion questionnaires
-cheaper than structured interviews -large numbers can be posted to participants who are far -researcher presence wont affect answers -convenient, can be completed whenever
limitations of self completion questionnaires
-low response rate -questions may be misunderstood -can't be sure who answered questions -questions often left unanswered
strengths of structured interviews
-interviewers can explain -interviewers can probe further -high response rate -interviewer can get valid answers by establishing a good relationship w them
limitations of structured interviews
-interviewer may influence answers -take time -several interviewers may approach the task differently -participants may give socially acceptable answers instead of honest ones
Reliability
When research can be repeated and a similar response is obtained
Validity
When research accurately reflects the reality it intended to capture
Unstructured interview
An interview without set questions that usually involves probing into emotions and attitudes, leading to qualitative data.
Semi-structured interview
An interview with some standardised questions but allowing the researcher some flexibility on what is asked in what order.
Focus group
A group brought together to be interviewed on a particular topic (the focus)
Group interview
Any interview involving a group interviewed together
rules for good interviews
-make interviewee feel comfortable -certain amount of order -language used is understandable and relevant -dont make assumptions -quiet and private setting -fact sheet record to contextualise answers -good recording machine
strengths of interviews
-detailed and valid data -flexible -can assess honesty of statements -can bring out info for further investigation
limitations of interviews
-time consuming -difficult to make generalisations -difficult to replicate so less reliable -interviewers should be skilled -interviewer bias -interviewer effect
Interviewer bias
Intentional or unintentional effect of the way that the interviewer asks questions or interprets answers
Interviewer effect
ways in which interviewer influences answers thru characteristics or appearance
Subjectivity
lack of objectivity, researcher's views influence the approach
Laboratory experiments
Artifical setting for the research where external variables are excluded wherever possible.
Hawthorne or Observer effect
The unintended effects of the researchers presence on the behavioir or responses of participants.
Field experiments
Experiments that take place in the natural setting of the real world rather than in a laboratory
Criteria to evaluate field experiments
-ethical problems -people may be harmed by strange and new situations -can lose a large degree of control over what happens -effective way of getting inside group behaviour
Case study
A detailed in depth study of one group or event
Strengths of case studies
-allow different aspects of case to be explored -deep and detailed -if carefully chosen they allow us to draw wider conclusions -can produce findings to be tested by other research elsewhere
Limitations of case studies
Longitudinal survey
strengths of longitudinal survey
-shows us how lives change over time -show what factors bring changes in people's lives over time -valid data because respondents are personally committed to the research
limitations of longitudinal survey
-considerable commitment of time and research over a long period -inevitable drop out (ppl may die, move away etc) -taking part in this research may make person think more about aspects of life and make them act differently
Overt participant observation
When the group being studied is aware that research is taking place and they know who the researcher is
Covert participant observation
The group being studied is unaware of the research and is deceived into thinking the researcher is a member of the group
Strengths of participant observation
-high in validity -possible to obtain deep understanding of the group
Limitations of participant observation
-presence of observer may affect behaviour of group -reliability is low bc difficult to replicate -unlikely that generalisations can be made -problems associated w gaining access to group and leaving (+ recording material and gaining trust) -lot of time and energy -researchers may lose objectivity when they become personally involved and identify w the group -may have to do bad shit to fit in
Non participant observation
When the researcher observes a group but does not participate in what they're doing
Content analysis
An method of studying media and classifying content and counting frequencies
Strengths of content analysis
-reliable -no ethical issues because no people involved -info about media in statistical form can be used to test theories and change media content
Limitations of content analysis
-quantiative data only so doesnt tell us about attitudes -difficult to decide categories -difficult to allocate material to categories accurately
Triangulation
Use of two or more methods in same research project
Strengths of triangulation
-allow qualitative date to be supported by quantiative data -can use to check validity -can use to check reliability w different sources -can help cross reference researchers interpretations to other data -balance between weaker and stronger methods
Limitations of triangulation
-time consuming and expensive -researcher should be skilled w diff methods -difficult to combine positivist and interpretivist methods
Representativeness
The degree to which research findings about one group apply to a larger or similar group
Primary data
Information collected by the sociologist firsthand
Secondary data
Information collected earlier by others and later used in research
Difference between official and non official statistics
Official statistics are produced by the government and official agencies, non official statistics are produced by other organisations like charities and think tanks
Trend
A change over time in a particular direction
Strengths of official statistics
-readily available free of charge -well planned and organised, likely to be valid, reliable, representative -part of longitudinal studies to show changes w time -allow comparisons to be made
limitations of official statistics
-socially constructed, not always objective facts -not always complete and accurate -unlikely to contain exactly what a sociologist would want to know -politics may affect stats, may be biased -comparisons only possible if the accuracy in measuring info has remained the same way at every stage -stats often are biased to reflect interests of ruling class according to marxists
Comparative study
Looking at two or more different groups or events in terms of similarities and differences in research
Historical documents
A wide range of documents from the past used as sources of information by sociologists
Strengths of historical docs
-high in validity -first hand accounts -descriptive detail and insight
Limitations of historical docs
-unrepresentative -need to be fact checked -may be biased
Quantitative data collection
data is controlled, objective, systematic observations
Note
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