BI108 Test 1

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C in CHONPS

carbon

H in CHONPS

hydrogen

O in CHONPS

oxygen

N in CHONPS

nitrogen

P in CHONPS

phosphorus

S in CHONPS

sulfur

How do nonpolar molecules relate to water?

they are hydrophobic

Dehydration Synthesis

a chemical reaction in which two smaller molecules are covalently bonded togehter to form a larger molecule, releasing a molecule o

Hydrolytic Degradation

a chemical breakdown process in which water molecules cleave the chemical bonds of a material

What is the relation between electronegativity and pH?

higher electronegative molecules are usually more acidic

Do polar molecules tend to be basic or acidic?

acidic

Monomer

a small, basic molecule that can combine with other identical or similar molecules to form a polymer via covalent bonds

Macromolecule

a molecule that has thousands of elements within it

What is the relationship between amino acids, peptides, and proteins?

amino acids bond together to form peptides, which then fold into complex proteins

Lipid

a molecule that does not dissolve in water and is made mostly of carbon and hydrogen; nonpolar

Saturated

a hydrocarbon chain that contains only single bonds, meaning all the carbons are packed as tightly as possible

Unsaturated

a hydrocarbon chain that contains one or more double bonds, which become “kinked” and become more fluid

Fat

a lipid comprised of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol

Fatty Acid

a hydrocarbon chain with a COOH group

Glycerol

C₃H₈O₃

Steroid

a lipid containing a specific “four-fused-ring” structure which are very compact and can pass into cells very easily; nonpolar

Phospholipid

a lipid that consists of a hydrophilic “head” that includes a phosphate group and another polar group and a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail

Amphipathic

a molecule having both a hydrophobic region and a hydrophilic region

Nucleotide

a molecule made up of a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base bonded to a 5-carbon sugar; negatively charged

How is DNA and RNA read?

from 5` to 3`

RNA

ribonucleic acid, which contains uracil; is much shorter than DNA

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, which contains thymine; lacks the 2` OH group found in RNA

Nucleic Acid

a molecule made up of nucleotides linked to form a chain or strand; very polar

Phosphodiester Bond

covalent bonds between the phosphate group on the 5` carbon of one nucleotide and the =OH group on the 3` carbon of a second nucleotide

Complementary Base Pairing

hydrogen bonding between A-T or A-U and G-C pairs in a nucleic acid

Primary Structure (Nucleic Acid)

the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid

Secondary Structure (Nucleic Acid)

formation of a double helix in DNA or a stem-and-loop structure in RNA, based on complementary base pairing

Sugar-Phosphate Backbone

the “spine" of 5-carbon sugars and phosphate groups in a nucleic acid

Antiparallel Strands

strands of DNA or RNA that align in the opposite 5` to 3` direction

Polymer

a large molecule made up of string of covalently bonded small molecules

Amino Acids

the building blocks that connect together via covalent bonds to form proteins

Amino Group

a group of NH₂ atoms; can pick up a proton to form NH₃⁺

Carboxyl Group

a group of COOH atoms; can lose a proton to form COO-

R-group

a highly variable group of atoms bonded to the central carbon of a amino acid

Hydrophilic

can readily interact with the partial charges on water

Hydrophobic

cannot readily interact with the partial charges on water

Peptide Bond

the covalent bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another

Primary Structure (Protein)

the sequence of amino acids, linked via peptide bonds

Secondary Structure (Protein)

formation of a ⍺-helices and β-pleated sheets, stabilize by hydrogen bonds between backbone atoms

Tertiary Structure (Protein)

folding into a 3-D shape stabilized by hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, S-S bridges, and hydrophobic interactions

Quaternary Structure (Protein)

assembly of multipart proteins from folded subunits, stabilized by hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, S-S bridges, and hydrophobic interactions

Ionic Bond

an interaction that occurs when a positively charged ion is attracted to a negatively charged ion

Hydrophobic Interaction

interactions that stabilize hydrophobic regions of molecules by minimizing their contact with water

Monosaccharides

simple sugars

What do monosaccharides contain?

a chain of carbon, a C=O group, and several -OH groups

Glycan

many sugars linked together

Glycosidic Linkages

covalent bonds that form glycans from monosaccharides

Carbohydrates

a family of molecules that includes both monosaccharides and glycans; polar

What are the three functions of carbohydrates?

energy storage and processing, structural support, and identification of cells and cell parts

Metabolism

the chemical reactions and other processes that enable organisms to take in resources and process them in ways that make growth and reproduction possible

Cell

a membrane-bound volume that has metabolic processes occurring inside. The smallest unit of life.

Kinetic Energy

the energy of motion

Phospholipid Bilayer

the barrier between the cell and the outside, which is made of phospholipids

Oligosaccharides

little chains of sugars that can identify individual cells in a multicelled organism

Peripheral Membrane Protein

protein that can either be on the outside or inside of the bilayer

Transmembrane Membrane Proteins

a protein that spans the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane

Diffusion

movement of ions or molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

Entropy

the tendency of systems to reach a state of higher disorder or randomness

Osmosis

movement of water across a cell membrane, from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

Concentration Gradient

difference in a substance’s concentration in a space—usually across a cell membrane

Potential Energy

the energy of position

Energy

the ability to do work

Facilitated Diffusion

diffusion of substances across cell membranes through integral membrane proteins

Passive Transport

movement of ions or molecules that does not require an input of energy. passive transport occurs down a gradient and is spontaneous because it increases entropy.

Active Transport

movement of ions or molecules that requires an input of energy. Active transport occur against a gradient and is nonspontaneous because it decreases entropy.

Channel

an integral membrane protein that offers a “conduit” for a specific ion to cross the lipid bilayer passively, via diffusion

Carrier

an integral membrane protein that transports a specific molecule across the lipid bilayer actively, often using energy carried by ATP, against their gradients

Vesicles

the smallest membrane-bound organelle, can carry various cargoes

Chromosome

a DNA molecule—circular or linear, depending on the species—usually associated with specific proteins that bind to the DNA

Ribosome

a molecular machine consisting of RNA and proteins that is the site of protein synthesis

Organelle

any membrane-bound compartment inside a cell

Cytoskeleton

rod-like proteins inside cells that function in structural support, transport of materials, and movement in some species

Cell Wall

a stiff structure outside the cell membrane composed of carbohydrates and other molecules

Flagellum

a long, flexible structure that extends from the cell and whips or rotates to propel the cell through water

Nucleus

an organelle unique to eukaryotes enclosed by a double membrane and containing the cell’s chromosomes

Mitochondrion

an organelle found in all eukaryotes that functions in “burning” sugars to provide energy for the cell

Eukaryote

a lineage of species with cells that contain a nucleus and mitochondria

Prokaryote

a species in the lineages Archea and Bacteria, with cells that lack a nucleus

Vacuole

an organelle that stores key molecules; very prominent in most plant cells

Chloroplast

an organelle that contains the molecular machinery required for photosynthesis

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

a eukaryotic organelle that forms a branching network of narrow tubes and flattened sacs. The place where proteins, membrane lipids, and other molecules are synthesized and/or processed

Smooth ER

produces lipids for membranes, like phospholipids

Rough ER

translates membrane-bound proteins or proteins that will be secreted

Golgi

an organelle that comprised of stacked,, flattened sacs, where proteins and other molecules are processed and packaged for shipment to specific destinations

Actin Filaments

small diameter cytoskeletal fibers made of subunits of the protein actin; most abundant; actin treadmilling powers cell motility

Intermediate Filaments

cytoskeletal fibers whose size is intermediate between those of actin filaments and microtubules, and can be made from a variety of protein subunits; super strong

Dimers

a molecule made up of two or more smaller identical molecules

Microtubules

large diameter, hollow cytoskeletal elements made of pairs of the proteins a-tubilin and B-tubulin; serves as transportation highways