GENDER

sex

the biological differences between males and females determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes (XX or XY) which influence hormonal differences and differences in anatomy

gender

the psychological, social and cultural differences between men and women, including attitudes, behaviours and social roles

sex-role stereotype

a set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for men and women in a given society or social group

sex is

innate (genetic/hormonal) and not ‘assigned’ at birth, it cannot be changed

gender is

‘assigned’ as it is a social construct - as it is partly determined by nurture it is fluid and open to change (a person may become more masculine/feminine depending on the social context they are in and the norms/expectations associated with it.

gender dysphoria

when a person’s biologically prescribed sex doesn’t reflect the way they feel inside and the gender the identify themselves as being (incongruent). may lead to gender reassignment surgery

how are sex role stereotypes spread

expectations are communicated or transmitted throughout society and reinforced by parents, peers, the media and other institutions like school

consequence of sex role stereotypes

lead to sexist assumptions being formed

androgynous appearance

to have the appearance of someone who cannot be clearly identified as a man or a woman - this look is often seen as an asset in the fashion or music industry

androgyny

a personality type characterised by a balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes and behaviours

androgyny and well being

high androgyny is associated with psychological well being because individuals who are both equally masculine and feminine are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations

over-representation

over-representation of opposite gender characteristics does not qualify as androgyny - a woman who is very masculine or a man who is very feminine would not exhibit the necessary balance of masculine and feminine traits

Sandra Bem

developed a way to measure androgyny (Bem Sex Role Inventory)

brain sex theory

an explanation that suggests gender dysphoria has a basis in brain structure (BST → bed nucleus of the stria terminalis)

what is the brain sex theory in gender dysphoria

people with gender dysphoria have a BST which is the size of the gender they identify with, not the size of their biological sex

fits with the report made by people who are transgender that they feel they were born the wrong sex

what is the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

a structure in the brain involved in emotional responses and in male sexual behaviour in rats

this area is larger in men than women and hasbeen found to be female sized in transgender females.

kruijver

found six transgender showed an average BST neuron number in the female range

what is another explanation for gender dysphoria?

genetic factors → there is a strong heritable component to gender dysphoria

what research did Coolidge do into gender dysphoria?

assessed 157 twin pairs for evidence of gender dysphoria and found that 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors

what research did Heylens do into gender dysphoria?

compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed with gender dysphoria

found that 39% of the MZ were concordant for gender dysphoria compared to none of the DZs which would indicate a role for genetic factors in the dev of gender dysphoria

what is the social constructionism perspective of gender dysphoria?

argues that gender identity doesn’t reflect underlying biological differences between people and instead these concepts are invented by societies

gender ‘confusion’ arises because society forces people to be wither a man or a woman

gender dysphoria is a social phenomenon which arises when people are required to choose one of two partivular paths

what was McClintock’s research into social constructionism?

cited the case of individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea

causes some biological males to be categorised as girls at birth because they have a labia and a clitoris

at puberty their genitals change because of a large increase in testosterone

this genetic variation is common among the Sambia but since this culture has had contact with others, these people are judged as having a pathological form of gender dysphoria

what is the psychoanalytic theory for gender dysphoria?

Person and Ovesey emphasise social relationships within the family as the cause of gender dysphoria

GID in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established

the boy fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety

so the boy becomes the other and thus adopts a woman’s gender identity

how does Stoller support the psychoanalytic theory for gender dysphoria?

he reports that, in interviews, GD biological males displayed overly close relationships with their mother suggesting stronger female identification and thus conflicted gender identity in the long term

what is the cognitive explanation for gender dysphoria?

Liben and Bigler: suggested that the dual pathway occurs when children acquire attitudes and behaviours which are in accordance with gender stereotypes, whilst the personal pathway occurs when the child’s interests exerts an influence on these traditional attitudes and behaviours, causing them to change due to their rapidly changing schemas on what it means to be male or female.

strength of the biological explanation for gender dysphoria: contradictory evidence

• central claims challenged

• Pol studied changes in transgender individuals’ brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment

• scans showed that size of BST changed significantly over that period

• Kruijver and Zhou’s studies → BST was examined post mortem and after transgender individuals had received hormone treatment during gender reassignment treatment

• suggests that differences in the BST may have been an effect of hormone therapy rather than the cause of gender dysphoria

strength of the biological explanation for gender dysphoria: other brain differences

• there may be other brain differences associated with gender dysphoria

• Rametti: studied another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain - white matter

• regional differences in the proportion of white matter in male and female brains - analysed the brains of both male and female transgender individuals, before they began hormone treatment

• the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender individuals identified themselves as being

strength of social explanations for gender dysphoria: social constructionism

• not all cultures have two genders

• some cultures recognise more than two genders (Samoa)

• challenged to traditional binary classifications of male and female

• the fact that increasing numbers of people describe themselves as non binary suggests cultural understanding is only beginning to catch up

limitation of the social explanation for gender dysphoria: psychoanalytic theory

• Ovesey and Person explanation doesn’t provie an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as the theory only applies to transgender women

• research by Rekers found that gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than the fear of separation from the mother

• not comprehensive

culture

the ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society

media

communication channels, such as TV, film and books, through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available

gender roles

a set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered typical of one gender and atypical of the other

cross-cultural research into gender roles

cross cultural research is noted for its valuable contribution to the nature-nurture debate in gender

if a gender role behaviour is consistent across cultures = innate biological difference between males and females

if a gender role behaviour is culturally specific = influence of shared norms and socialisation

Buss’ research into cultural similarities in gender roles (nature)

found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents

in all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness

Munroe’s research into cultural similarities in gender roles (nature)

revealed that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines (men = breadwinners and women = nurturers

what cultural groups did Mead discover in Papa New Guinea that found cultural differences in gender roles?

• Arapesh: gentle and responsive

• Mundugumor: aggressive and hostile

• Tchambuli women: dominant and organised village life, men: decorative and passive

what does Mead’s research suggest about cultural differences in gender roles?

there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender and that gender roles may be culturally determines

Mead conceded that she underestimated the universal nature of gender typical behaviours but the extent to which innate behaviours are expressed is largely the result of cultural norms

what is the role of media in gender roles?

the media provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate, children are likely to select role models who are the same gender and who engage in stereotypically appropriate behaviour

how are stereotypes presented in media?

the media provides very clear gender stereotypes that are rigid: men are independent, ambitious ‘advice givers’, women are dependent , unambitious ‘advice seekers’

what was Furnham and Farragher’s research into gender roles?

did a study of TV adverts and found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts whereas women were seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings

what is self-efficacy in the influence of media on gender roles?

the media also gives information to men and women in terms of likely success of adopting gender typical behaviour

seeing other people perform gender appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future (self-efficacy)

what was Mitra’s study into self-efficacy?

analysed the attitudes of people in India who had watched a programme designed to challenge deep rooted gender stereotypes

was a detective drama → girls who watched the programme were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than non-viewers - self-efficacy changed

strength of the influence of culture on gender roles: research support

• Hofstede argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere

• led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies

• traditional societies: women still occupy the role of housemaker as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures

• cultural context

limitation of influence of culture on gender roles: mead’s research

• mead’s research has been criticised

• made generalisations based on a short period of study

• Freeman: conducted follow up study of people from Papua new Guinea after Mead’s investigations

• he argued that Mead’s findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants

• her preconceptions of what she would find had influenced her reading of events (observer bias and ethnocentrism)

strength of research into media influence on gender roles: cultivation theory

• theoretical basis

• cultivation theory: more time individuals spend ‘living’ in the media world, the more likely they are to believe that this reflects social reality

• Bond and Drogos: positive correlation between time spent watching the reality programme Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes towards casual sex

• still true when researchers controlled for the influence of factors like existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs

limitation of influence of media on gender roles: passive recipients

• may not be a causal relationship

• Durkin: even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages

• norms within the child’s family may be the bigger determinant on the child’s gender attitudes and behaviout

• if media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family then these are likely to be reinforced in the child’s mind

• if not then such representations are likely to be rejected

social learning theory in gender development

SLT acknowledges the role social context plays in development and states that gender related behaviour is learned from observing others

draws attention to the influence of the environment in shaping gender development (parents, peers, culture and media)

what is the role of direct reinforcement (SLT) in gender development?

children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is stereotypically gender-appropriate

the way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour = differential reinforcement

a child is more likely to repeat a behaviour that has been reinforced (indirect/direct)

what is the role of vicarious reinforcement (SLT) in gender development?

if the consequences of another person’s behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child

if the consequences of behaviour are seen to be unfavourable behaviour is less likely to be imitated

what is the role of identification (SLT) in gender development?

refers to the process whereby a child attaches themself to a person who is seen to be ‘like me’ or to a person who ‘I want to be’.

these people are role models and may be in immediate environment or media (attractive, high status and same gender)

what is the role of modelling (SLT) in gender development?

modelling is the precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer and also used to explain the learning from the observer’s perspective

what are the meditational processes involved in the learning of gender behaviour (SLT)?

• attention

• retention

• motivation

• motor reproduction

strength of SLT to explaining gender development: research support

• Smith and Lloyd: study involved babies 4-6 months who were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half in girls’ clothes

• when observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be a boy were more likely to be given a hammer shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous and active

• when the same babies were dressed as girls they were more likely to be handed a cuddly doll, told they were pretty and reinforced for being passive

counterpoint of SLT to explaining gender development

• differential reinforcement may not be the cause of gender differences in behaviour

• adults during interactions with their own children may simply be responding to innate gender differences that are already there

• the observation. that boys are encouraged to be more active during play may be a consequence of the fact that they are naturally more active anyway, due to hormonal differences

• partial explanation

strength of SLT to explaining gender development: cultural differences

• social learning can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour

• androgyny: there exists less of a clear cut distinction between what many people regard as stereotypically masculine and feminine behaviour in many societies today

• as there has been no corresponding change in people’s basic biology within the same period, such a shift is much bettee explained by SLT

• shift in social expectations and cultural norms = new forms of gender behaviour are now unlikely to be punished

limitation of SLT to explaining gender development: no developmental sequence

• SLT doesn’t provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age

• modelling of gender appropriate behaviour is said to occur at any age

• but its illogical that children who are 2 learn int he same way as children who are 9

• this conflicts Kohlberg’s theory that children do not become active in their gender development until they reach gender constancy

• suggests influence of age isn’t considered

freud’s psychoanalytic theory in explaining gender development

sees children pass through five biologically driven psychosexual stages that begin with the oral stage and end with the genital stage. the phallic stage is when gender development occurs (3-6)

focus of pleasure for the child switches to the genitals where children experience the Oedipus or Electra complex

oedipus complex

boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and have a jealous and murderous hatred for their father (stands in the way)

the boy recognises the father is more powerful and has castration anxiety

to resolve the conflict the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father

electra complex

girls experience penis envy, seeing themselves and their mother as being in competition for their father’s love

girls develop a double resentment towards their mother as she is blamed by the daughter for having no penis

Jung → girls come to accept they will never have a penis and substitute penis envy with the desire to have children, identifying with their mother

identification and internalisation in gender development (Freud)

both sexes identify with the same gender parent as a means of resolving their respective complexes and take on their gender identity (internalisation)

little hans in freud’s theory of gender development

freud’s ideas can be supported using the case study of Little Hans, where Freud believed that Little Hans’ phobia of horses was the result of the displacement (a defence mechanism) of castration anxiety from his father, onto the horse.

strength of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development: the oedipus complex

• some support for the role of the Oedipus complex

• Freud: for boys, ‘normal’ development depends on being raised by at least one male parent

• there is some support: Rekers and Morey → rated the gender identity of 49 boys 3-11 based on interviews with their families and children

• of those who were ‘gender disturbed’, 75% had neither their father or substitute living with them

• no father - negative impact

counterpoint of the psychodynamic explanation for gender development

• the relationship between absent fathers and problems of gender identity is not supported

• Bos + Sandfort → compared data from 63 children where both parents were lesbians and 68 children from traditional families

• children raised by lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes and were less likely to assume their own gender was superior

• but no differences in terms of psychosocial adjustment or gender identity

limitation of the psychodynamic explanation for gender development: female development

• inadequate account of women’s development

• much of the theorising on girls’ parallel development was undertaken by Jung, one of Freud’s contemporaries who also produced a psychoanalytic theory

• Freud admitted that women were a mystery to him and his notion of penis envy has been criticised as reflected the androcentric Victorian era during which he lived

• feminist psychoanalyst Horney argued that a more powerful emotion is men’s experience of ‘womb envy’ - a reaction to women’s ability to nurture and sustain life

• result of cultural factors

• androcentric bias

limitation of the psychodynamic explanation for gender development: pseudoscientific

• lacks scientific credibility

• Freud: criticised for lack of rigour in methods (case studies)

• concept are untestable because they are unconscious

• contrasts others - objective and verifiable evidence from lab studies

• can’t be falsified

• questions validity

kohlberg’s cognitive theory of gender

based on the idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age that comes as a result of biological maturation

understanding of gender runs parallel to intellectual development and is thought to process through three states.

stage 1: gender identity

\[2/3 years\] a child recognises that they are a boy or a girl but can’t do for others. don’t appreciate that gender remains the same across time and different situations

stage 2: gender stability

\[4/5 years\] a child understands that their own gender is fixed and they will be a man or a woman when they are older. don’t understand that strangers can be ‘female’ but have male physical characteristics

stage 3: gender constancy

\[6 years\] a child realises that gender remains the same over time and situations. they begin to identify with people of their own gender and start to behave in stereotypically gender appropriate ways

SLT in Kohlberg’s theory

through SLT, children imitate and develop the characteristics/personality traits of sex-role appropriate role models, who potentially have been identified as society or the media as being appropriate representations of male/female

search for evidence that confirms internalised concepts of gender

beginning of the development of sex-role stereotypes.

strength of kohlberg’s theory: research support

• evidence suggests gender stereotyping emerges around 6

• Damon: told children a story of a boy who liked to play with dolls and asked to comment.

• 4 year olds: fine for him to play with dolls

• 6 year olds: wrong for him to play with dolls

• gone beyong understanding what boys and girls do to gender stereotyping.

counterpoint of kohlberg’s theory

• other research challenges the idea that gender stereotyping is 6 years

• Bussey and Bandura: children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender appropriate toys

• they felt ‘bad’ about doing the opposite

• contradicts kohlbergs theory, but supports gender schema theory

limitation of kohlberg’s theory: methodological problem

• supporting research relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender constancy

• Bem: criticised method. key test of gender constancy is whether a child understands that gender stays the same despite changes in appearance and context

• but this is how we demarcate one gender fro another (through clothes and hairstyle)

• best way is through physical differences, such as genitalia - younger children ‘don’t understand’

• Bem study: demonstrated that 40% children 3-5 demonstrated gender constancy if they were shown a naked photo of the child to be identified first

• misrepresents what children actually known

limitation of kohlberg’s theory: degrees of constancy

• other researchers suggested there may be different degrees of gender constancy

• Martin et al: praise Kohlberg’s theory for recognising that children’s understanding of gender guides bhv

• point out that exactly when and how this understanding affects children’s bhv is unclear

• may be different degrees: initial degree may orient children to importance of gender (choosing friends) may develop before 6

• second degree of constancy may heighten responsiveness to gender norms, choosing appropriate clothes/attitudes.

• gradual process

gender schema

an organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience. such schema guide a person’s understanding of their own gender and stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour in general

generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender

martin and halverson’s gender schema theory

agree with Kohlberg in the idea that there is a positive correlation between increasing age and increasingly sophisticated understanding of gender identity

but development is active and there is emphasis on the development on schemas

what is a schema?

a concept from the cognitive approach - a mental construct that develop via experience and are used by out cognitive system to organise knowledge around particular topics

what is the role of gender schema after gender identity?

once a child has established gender identity around 2-3 years, they will begin to search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema - contrasts with Kohlberg’s view that this only begins after gender constancy

how do gender schema determine behaviour?

gender schema expand to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits → formed around stereotypes and provide a framework that directs experience and child’s understanding of itself

children disregard information that doesn’t fit with existing schema.

what is the role of gender schema in ingroup information?

children have a better understanding of schema that are appropriate to their own gender (ingroup) → children pay more attention to info relevant to their gender identity

no until older they develop schema for both genders

ingroup identity bolsters child self-esteem

strength of gender schema theory: research support

• key principles are supported by evidence

• Martin and Halverson’s study: children under 6 = more likely to remember photos of stereotypically appropriate behaviour than photographs of gender inappropriate behaviour when tested a week later

• children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender inappropriate activity was now appropriate

• predicts children under 6 would do this

limitation of gender schema theory: earlier gender identity

• gender identity probably developms earlier than suggested

• longitudinal study of 82 children → onset of gender identity

• data from 2 weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language 9-21 months with videotaped analysis of play

• key measure of gender identity: how and when labelled themselves as a boy or girl

• occurred on average at 19 months - as soon as communication starts

• have a gender identity before

counterpoint of gender schema theory

• not appropriate to argue about specific ages

• suggest the key point is the shifts in a child’s thinking and ages are averages not absolutes

• many children move through stages quicker/slower than others - sequence is more important

strength of gender schema theory: cultural differences

• accounts for cultural differences in stereotypical behaviour

• Cherry: gender schema counts culturally appropriate behaviour

• traditional cultures: believe women should take a nurturing role and men pursue a career, will raise children who form schema consistent with this view

• societies with less rigid boundaries - more likely to have fluid gender schema

• explains how gender schema are transmitted between members of a society and how cultural differences come about.

atypical sex chromosome patterns

any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms

klinefelter’s syndrome

a syndrome affecting male in which an individual’s genotype has an extra X chromosome

affects 1/600 males, 10% cases are identified with prenatal diagnosis, 2/3 of people with it aren’t aware

Turner’s syndrome

a chromosomal disorder in which affected women only have one X chromosome (XO)

affects 1/5000 biological females

what are the physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome?

• reduced body hair

• breast development

• softening or rounding of body contours

• long limbs, underdeveloped genitals

• problems with coordination and clumsiness

what are the psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome?

• poorly developed language skills and reading ability

• passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity

• don’t respond well to stressful situations

• problems with executive functions: memory and problem solving

what are the physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?

• don’t have a menstrual cycle

• ovaries don’t develop, infertile

• don’t develop breasts, have a broad shield chest

• low set ears and a ‘webbed neck’

• high waist to hip ratio

• physically immature and retain appearance of prepubescent girls

what are the psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?

• higher than average reading ability

• performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks is lower than average

• socially immature, trouble relating to peers, difficulty ‘fitting in’

strength of atypical sex chromosome patterns: nature-nurture debate

• contributes to nature-nurture debate

• comparing syndromes with chromosome typical individuals it’s possible to see psychological and behavioural differences

• e.g. Turners = higher verbal ability and talk more

• logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and result of abnormal chromosomal structure

counterpoint of atypical sex-chromosome patterns

• relationship between atypical chromosomal patterns and differences in behaviour may not be causal

• may be environmental and social influences are more responsible for differences

• social immaturity in Turner’s females → treated ‘immaturely’ by people around them

• react to prepubescent appearance in a way that encourages immature behaviour = direct impact upon school performance = learning problems

strength of atypical sex chromosome patterns: real world application

• application to managing syndromes

• continued research - earlier and more accurate diagnoses of syndromes and more positive outcomes

• Australian study of 87 with Klinefelter’s: those identified and treated from a very young age experienced significant benefits in terms of managing syndrome, compared to those diagnosed in adulthood

limitation of atypical sex-chromosome patterns: sampling issue

• to identify characteristics of Klinefelter’s and Turner’s individuals it is necessary to identify a large number with the disorder and build a database

• so we can see the full range of characteristics from mild to severe

• but only those with most severe symptoms are identified and therefore the picture of typical symptoms may be distorted

• Boada: prospective studies (following individuals from birth)have produced a more accurate picture of characteristics

• many with Klinefelter’s don’t experience significant cognitive or psychological problems and many are highly successful

chromosomes

found in the nucleus of living cells and carrying information in the form of genes

the 23rd pair of chromosomes determines biological sex

hormone

a biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs. produced in large quantities but disappear quickly, effects are powerful

testosterone

a hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes (and in smaller amounts in the female ovaries)

controls development of male sex organs

linked to aggression because it is adaptive → allows males to compete for the opportunity to mate with a fertile female/hunter role

oestrogen

the primary female hormone, playing an important role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system

determines female sexual characteristics and causes heightened emotionality and irritability during menstrual cycle (PMS)

oxytocin

a hormone which causes contraction of the uterus during labour and stimulates lactation

reduces stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding (‘love hormone’)

men produce less = stereotype that men are less interested in intimacy

both sexes produce oxytocin during amorous activities