WWI

M.A.I.N.

The four commonly taught long-term causes of WWI: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism.

Militarism

The buildup of armies, navies, weapons, and military plans, making European countries more prepared for war.

Alliances

Agreements between countries to support one another, making a conflict involving one country more likely to spread.

Imperialism

Competition between countries for colonies, territory, resources, and international influence.

Nationalism

Strong loyalty to one's nation or ethnic group, often creating demands for independence, unity, or greater national power.

Triple Alliance

The pre-WWI alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, formed in 1882.

Triple Entente

The pre-WWI understanding among Britain, France, and Russia, developed by 1907.

Triple Alliance vs. Central Powers

The Triple Alliance originally had Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy; the Central Powers during WWI were Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

Triple Entente vs. Allied Powers

The Triple Entente was Britain, France, and Russia; the Allied Powers during WWI included them plus many other countries such as Serbia, Italy, and later the United States.

Why were the Balkans unstable before WWI?

The Ottoman Empire was weakening, Balkan nationalism was growing, new states wanted territory, and Austria-Hungary and Russia competed for influence.

Why was Austria-Hungary worried about Serbia?

Serbia was becoming stronger and promoted South Slavic nationalism, while Austria-Hungary ruled many South Slavs, creating fears of rebellion or separation.

Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 and formally annexed it in 1908.

Why was Bosnia important to Serbia?

Bosnia had many South Slavs, including Serbs, and Serbian nationalists wanted greater unity among South Slavic peoples.

First Balkan War

The 1912 war in which Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro attacked the Ottoman Empire and took most of its remaining territory in Europe.

Effect of the First Balkan War on Serbia

Serbia gained territory and became significantly stronger, increasing Austria-Hungary's concern about Serbian nationalism.

Second Balkan War

The 1913 conflict in which Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece but was defeated by Serbia, Greece, Romania, Montenegro, and the Ottoman Empire.

Effect of the Second Balkan War on Serbia

Serbia became even stronger, further increasing tensions with Austria-Hungary.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne who visited Sarajevo in 1914 and was assassinated there.

Why did Franz Ferdinand go to Bosnia?

He went to observe Austro-Hungarian military exercises in Bosnia and take part in official engagements, including a visit to Sarajevo.

Sarajevo assassination

On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist connected to Serbian nationalist networks, assassinated Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo.

Gavrilo Princip

A Bosnian Serb nationalist who assassinated Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.

Why did the Sarajevo assassination matter?

Austria-Hungary already feared Serbian nationalism, and the assassination gave it a reason to confront Serbia.

July 28, 1914

The date Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, beginning the chain that became WWI.

Why did the Austria-Hungary–Serbia conflict become a world war?

Russia supported Serbia, Germany supported Austria-Hungary, France was allied with Russia, and Britain's involvement followed Germany's invasion of Belgium, causing the conflict to spread.

Central Powers

The main WWI bloc consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

Allied Powers

The WWI bloc that included Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, Italy, the United States, and many others.

What is a front?

A major region where armies are fighting during a war.

Western Front

The main WWI front in France and Belgium, where Germany fought mainly France and Britain and where trench warfare became dominant.

Eastern Front

The huge WWI front in Eastern Europe, where Germany and Austria-Hungary fought Russia and warfare was generally more mobile than in the West.

Trench warfare

A style of WWI fighting in which opposing armies used networks of defensive trenches and fought across exposed No Man's Land.

No Man's Land

The exposed area between opposing trench systems.

Typical WWI trench system

A network usually containing front-line, support, and reserve trenches connected by communication trenches.

Why did trench warfare become so static?

Machine guns, heavy artillery, barbed wire, and other defensive weapons made attacks across open ground extremely difficult.

Typical trench attack

Artillery bombardment was followed by infantry leaving the trench, crossing No Man's Land, attempting to capture enemy trenches, and facing counterattacks.

Chemical warfare in WWI

The use of poison gases such as chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas.

Chlorine gas

A chemical weapon used in WWI that damages the respiratory system; Germany made a major early large-scale use at the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915.

Why were chemical weapons frightening?

Soldiers could be exposed without seeing a conventional projectile coming, leading armies to develop gas masks and other protection.

RMS Lusitania

A British passenger liner traveling from New York to Britain that was torpedoed by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915.

Why was the Lusitania important?

About 1,200 people died, including 128 Americans, causing a major US-German diplomatic crisis.

Why did Germany attack the Lusitania?

Germany considered shipping that supported Britain’s war effort a target and argued that the ship carried war-related material, including ammunition.

Did the Lusitania immediately bring the USA into WWI?

No. The USA strongly protested, and Germany became more cautious about submarine attacks because it did not want to provoke the United States.

Sussex

A French passenger ferry attacked by a German submarine on March 24, 1916, causing another major crisis with the United States.

Why was the Sussex important?

About 50 people were killed and Americans were among those aboard, increasing US-German tensions.

Sussex Pledge

Germany's May 4, 1916 promise to restrict submarine attacks and generally give passengers and crews an opportunity to escape.

Unrestricted submarine warfare

A German policy of attacking shipping in the war zone without the previous restrictions on warning ships and allowing people to escape.

When did Germany resume unrestricted submarine warfare?

February 1, 1917.

Why did unrestricted submarine warfare anger the USA?

It increased the danger to American ships and citizens and violated the restrictions Germany had previously accepted.

Zimmermann Telegram

A secret German message sent to Mexico proposing an alliance if the USA entered the war, with German support for Mexico's efforts to recover territory lost to the USA.

When was the Zimmermann Telegram sent?

January 16, 1917.

What territory did Germany mention in the Zimmermann proposal?

Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.

What happened to the Zimmermann Telegram?

Britain intercepted and decoded it, the US government received it on February 24, 1917, and it became public on March 1, 1917.

Why did Germany send the Zimmermann Telegram?

Germany expected unrestricted submarine warfare might bring the USA into the war and wanted Mexico to create a major problem for the United States if that happened.

Why did Mexico reject the Zimmermann proposal?

Mexico judged war with the United States too risky, especially while dealing with serious internal problems.

When did the USA enter WWI?

April 6, 1917, when the United States declared war on Germany.

Why did the USA enter WWI?

Major factors included German unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram, following earlier crises such as the Lusitania and Sussex.

Russian Revolution and WWI

Russia's military losses and internal crisis contributed to the 1917 Revolution, which brought the Bolsheviks to power.

Bolsheviks

The revolutionary socialist faction led by Vladimir Lenin that seized power in Russia in 1917.

Vladimir Lenin

Revolutionary leader of the Bolsheviks who led the movement that seized power in Russia in 1917.

Karl Marx

German thinker whose Marxist theories strongly influenced later socialist and communist movements, including the Bolsheviks.

Marxism

A political and economic theory associated with Karl Marx that emphasizes class conflict and the transformation of capitalist society.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The treaty signed on March 3, 1918, through which Bolshevik Russia left WWI.

Why did Russia leave WWI?

The Russian Revolution, enormous military losses, and the Bolsheviks' desire to end the war led Russia to withdraw.

Why was the Eastern Front different from the Western Front?

The Eastern Front covered a much larger area and was more mobile, while the Western Front became dominated by a relatively fixed trench system.

Fall of the Central Powers

In late 1918, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Germany left the war one after another.

When did Bulgaria leave WWI?

September 29, 1918, when Bulgaria signed an armistice.

When did the Ottoman Empire leave WWI?

October 30, 1918, when it signed the Armistice of Mudros.

Why did Austria-Hungary collapse?

Military defeat combined with nationalist movements inside the multinational empire caused it to break apart.

When did Austria-Hungary sign an armistice?

November 3, 1918.

Why did Germany collapse in 1918?

Germany faced military defeats, exhaustion, food shortages, economic problems, political unrest, and revolution at home.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

Germany's emperor who abdicated on November 9, 1918, near the end of WWI.

When did Germany sign its armistice?

November 11, 1918.

Armistice

An agreement to stop fighting; it does not necessarily mean the war has been formally settled by a peace treaty.

Armistice vs. peace treaty

An armistice stops the fighting, while a peace treaty formally settles the war and its terms.

Treaty of Versailles

The major 1919 peace treaty dealing with Germany after WWI.

Date of the Treaty of Versailles

June 28, 1919.

Where was the Treaty of Versailles signed?

At the Palace of Versailles in France.

D-R-M-T of Versailles

Debt/Reparations, Reduced territory, Military restrictions, and Article 231/War Guilt.

German reparations

Germany was required to pay reparations after WWI; in 1921 the total obligation was set at 132 billion gold marks.

German territorial losses under Versailles

Germany lost territory in Europe, including Alsace-Lorraine to France and territory to Poland, and lost all of its overseas colonies.

Danzig after WWI

Danzig became a Free City rather than remaining part of Germany; it had a predominantly German-speaking population.

Polish Corridor

Territory giving Poland access to the Baltic Sea that separated mainland Germany from East Prussia.

German military restrictions under Versailles

The army was limited to 100,000; conscription was banned; Germany could not have tanks, a military air force, or submarines; the navy was heavily restricted; and the Rhineland was demilitarized.

Article 231 / War Guilt Clause

The article assigned responsibility for the losses and damage of the war to Germany and its allies and provided the legal basis for reparations.

Why was the Treaty of Versailles controversial in Germany?

Germany had little role in negotiating the final terms, and many Germans viewed the treaty as unfair and humiliating.

Did the Treaty of Versailles alone cause WWII?

No. It contributed to German resentment and instability, but WWII had multiple causes.

Ruhr Crisis

In 1923, France and Belgium occupied Germany's Ruhr after Germany fell behind on reparations payments.

Passive resistance in the Ruhr

The German government encouraged workers in the Ruhr to resist the occupation without armed fighting and financially supported them.

Hyperinflation in Germany — 1923

The Ruhr crisis and government support for passive resistance contributed to severe inflation, causing German currency to lose enormous value and damaging people's savings.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

Woodrow Wilson's post-WWI proposals for a more peaceful international system, including open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, reduced trade barriers, disarmament, self-determination, and an international organization.

Point 14 of the Fourteen Points

The proposal to create an international organization to help maintain peace; this became associated with the League of Nations.

League of Nations

An international organization created after WWI to promote peace, diplomacy, international cooperation, disarmament, and collective security.

League of Nations headquarters

Geneva, Switzerland.

Collective security

The idea that countries should cooperate to respond to aggression against any member.

Main weakness of the League of Nations

It had no independent army and depended on member countries to enforce its decisions.

Why did the USA not join the League of Nations?

The US Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles, so the United States never joined the League.

League success — Åland Islands

The League helped settle the Sweden–Finland dispute over the Åland Islands; the islands remained with Finland with protections for their Swedish-speaking population.

League and Corfu Crisis — 1923

The League became involved after Italy occupied Corfu during a dispute with Greece and helped move the crisis toward a settlement.

League failure — Manchuria, 1931

Japan occupied Manchuria; the League investigated and condemned the action but could not force Japan to withdraw.

League failure — Ethiopia, 1935

Italy invaded Ethiopia; the League imposed sanctions, but they were insufficient to stop the invasion.

Overall problem with the League

It could condemn aggression and promote diplomacy, but it could not reliably force powerful aggressor states to stop.