anatomy exam 1

anatomy

study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

physiology

study of the function of body parts

gross (macroscopic) anatomy

study of body structures visible to naked eye

regional anatomy

looks at structures in a particular body area

gross anatomy

system anatomy

looks at 1 system (i.e. nervous system)

gross anatomy

surface anatomy

looks at internal structures as they relate to overlying skin (i.e. visible muscle masses)

gross anatomy

microscopic anatomy

structures too small to be seen with naked eye

cytology

study of cells

histology

study of tissues

developmental anatomy

structural changes throughout life span

embryology

developmental changes that occur before birth

what skills you need to study anatomy

anatomical terminology

observe

manipulate

palpate (feel w/ hands)

auscultate (listen w/ stethoscope)

principle of complementarity of structure and function

anatomy and physiology are inseperable

function reflects structure

levels of structural organization (chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal)

chemical(smallest): atoms and molecules

cellular: cells and organelles

tissue: groups of similar cells

organ: 2+ tissue types

organ system: organs that work together

organismal(largest): all organ systems, entire organism

necessary life functions

maintaining boundaries between internal/external environments

movement of body parts (muscle cells can contract), of cells, and of substances

responsiveness/excitability to sense changes and respond to environment

digestion to break down food

metabolism: all chemical reactions that occur in cells (anabolism: making molecules)(catabolism: breaking down molecules)(making ATP)

excretion of waste

reproduction of cells and offspring

growth

survival needs

nutrients (carbs, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins)

oxygen for metabolic reactions

water

normal body temp

appropriate atmospheric pressure

homeostasis

maintenance of internal conditions despite changing environment

dynamic process (constantly monitored and regulated by nervous and endocrine systems)

homeostatic controls

receptor (sensor): responds to stimuli and sends info/input to control center along AFFERENT PATHWAY

control center: receives input, determines set point and appropriate response, sends info/output to effector along EFFERENT PATHWAY

effector: recieves output, responds with either negative or positive feedback

negative and positive feedback

negative: more common, reduces/shuts off original stimulus

positive: exaggerates original stimulus

feedforward (anticipatory) response

occurs in anticipation of a change to internal environment

*think Pavlovs dogs

homeostatic imbalance

disturbance of homeostasis

serosa/serous membrane

thin, double-layered membranes in ventral body cavity

parietal seosa: lines cavity walls

visceral serosa: covers organs in cavity

serous fluid: secreted by both parietal and visceral serosa, cavity between serosas filled with fluid

named for the specific cavity and associated organs (parietal/visceral pleurae and pleural fluid in lungs)(parietal/visceral peritoneum and peritoneal fluid in abdominopelvic) cavity)(parietal/visceral pericardium and pericardial fluid in heart area)

oral/digestive cavity

mouth

has teeth and tongue

continuous with digestive organs cavity

open cavity (exposed to environment)

nasal cavity

in nose

part of respiratory system

open cavity

orbital cavities

house eyes

open cavities

middle ear cavities

in skull

has bones that transmit sound vibrations for hearing

open cavities

synovial cavities

secretes synovial fluid to lubricate joints

closed cavities (not exposed to environment)

4 tissue types

epithelial (skin)(protects)

connective (connects tissues)

muscle (contracts)(skeletal, cardiac, smooth)

nervous (internal communication)

steps to view tissue samples under microscope

fixed: preserved w/solvent

sectioned: cut into thin slices that light electrons can be transmitted through

stained: to enhance contrast (colored syes in light microscopy)(heavy metal salts in electron miscoscopy)

epithelial tissue/epithelium

covers body surface/lines body cavities

2 main forms:

1. skin, lining or urogenital/digestive/respiratory systems

2. forms glands of the body

functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, sensory reception

epithelial tissue characteristics

polarity (apical surface (top, most smooth, some have microvilli) and basal surface (bottom, attaches to basal lamina)

specialized contacts: tight junctions and desmosomes bind adjacent epithelial cells to form sheets

supported by connective tissue (reticular lamina and basement membrane)(reinforces and defines boundary)

avascular but innervated (no blood vessels, supplied by nerve fibers)

regeneration: high regeneration capacities due to high damage

classification of epithelial tissue

1. cell layers: simple (1 layer of cells)(absorbtion, secretion, filtration), stratified (2+ cell layers)(durable, protection)

2. cell shapes: squamous (squished), cuboidal ( box like), columnar (tall, column like)

stratified is named based on the top layer cell shape

simple squamous

where rapid diffusion occurs (alveoli in lungs coir CO2 and O2 exchange)

simple cuboidal

in kidneys

cilliated

simple columnar

have goblet cells in between

in digestive tract

have cilia to move things along

pseudostratified columnar

cells very in height and appear to be stratified

secretion/movement of musuc with cilia

in respiratory system

stratified squamous

most widespread

where high wear and tear occurs

in mouth and skin

stratified cuboidal

rare

usually 2 cell layers

sweat and mammary glands

stratified columnar

rare

at transition areas between 2 epithelia types

transitional epithelium

can transition into something bigger/smaller

lining of bladder, uterus, urethra so it can expand

resembles all 3 cell types

gland

1+ cells that make/secrete a secretion (fluid)

gland classification

site of product release (endocrine=ductless gland that produces hormones, secrere hormones into fluid)(exocrine=secrete products into body surfaces)

number of cells making gland: (unicellular (i.e. goblet cells), produce mucin to form mucus for lubrication)(multicellular), have ducts

multicellular exocrine glands

a duct and secretory unit

surrounded by connective tissue

classified by:

1. structure: simple (unbranched ducts) or compound (branched ducts) and tubular, alveolar, or tubuloalveolar

2. mode of secretion: merocrine (secreted by exocytosis, most common) or holocrine (accumulates products until rupture)

3. *know simple tubular/branched tubular and compound tubloalveolar

connective tissue

most abundant tissue type

bindibng and support, protection, insulation, storing reserve fuel, transporting substances

4 main classes of connective tissue

connective tissue proper

cartilage

bone

blood

common characteristics of connective tissue

cells are suspended in extracellular matrix

cells arise from mesenchyme (embryonic tissue)

elements that all connective tissues have

ground substance (gel-like material that fills space between cells)(has interstitial/extra fluid, cell adhesion proteins/”glue”, and proteoglycans (large protein sugars))

fibers (provide support)

cells

connective tissue fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular)

fibers provide support

collagen fibers: strongest, most common, tough

elastic fibers: allow for stretch/recoil

reticular fibers: thin, branching fibers that offer more ;give”

connective tissue cells (blast vs cyte)

“-blast” cells are immature that secrete ground substance and fibers

“-cyte” cells are mature that maintain matrix health

EX: fibroblasts/cytes in connective tissue proper, chondroblasts/cytes in cartilage, osteoblasts/cytes in bone

structural elements of connective tissue (adipocytes, leukocytes, mast cells, macrophages)

adipocytes: store energy as fat, adipo=fat

leukocytes: white blood cells, respond to injury, leuko=white

mast cells: detect foreign material and initiate inflammatory response

macrophages: breakdown material

connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue

areolar, adipose, reticular

areolar loose connective tissue

areolar think air (loose)

universal packing material (think house insulation)

supports/binds other tissues

adipose loose connective tissue

looks like oil (fat) in water

nutrient storage

white fat (adipocyte cells)

reticular loose connective tissue

looks like a tree

like fibers

around the spleen

forms stroma that supports blood cells

connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue

regular

irregular

elastic

dense regular

consistent structure

can withstand high tension/stretching

parallel, wavy collagen fibers

poorly vascularized

dense irregular

irregularly arranged

in dermis (skin) so skin can move in all directions

dense elastic

like accordion

ligaments

can stretch

connective tissue: cartilage

matrix secreted from chondroblasts/cytes

80% water

tough and fleexible

avascular

hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

hyaline cartilage

most abundant

looks glassy

tough

at tips of long bones

elastic cartilage\

in ears

fibrocartilage

very strong

in vertebreal disks and knee

connective tissue: bone/osseus tissue

supports/protects body structyres

osteoblasts produce matric

osteocytes maintain matrix

vascularized

connective tissue: blood

fluid, consists of blood cells surrounded by plasma (fluid matrix)

red blood cells, white blood cells, platlets

transports

muscle tissue

highly vascularized

allows for most movement (myofilaments bring about contraction)

skeletal muscle

AKA voluntary muscle b/c consciously controlled

cells are muscle fibers (multiple nuclei and banded)

cardiac muscle

only in walls of heart

involuntary

banded cells with 1 nucleus

intercalated discs: joints where branched cardiac muscle cells are joined

smooth muscle

in walls of hollow organs (NOT HEART)

involuntary

not banded

spindle shaped w/ 1 nucleus

nervous tissue

regulates/controls body functions

made up of 2 specialized cells:

1. neurons: respond to stimuli via dendrites and trasmit signals along axons

2. glial cells support, insulate, protect neurons

membranes

cover and line

3 types: cutaneous, mucous, serous

cutaneous membrane

AKA skin

keratinized(tough protein) stratified squamous attached to thick connective tissue

dry membrane

mucous membranes/mucosae

lines body cavities o

open to exterior

moist

many mucosae secrete mucus

serous membranes/serosae

line closed ventral body cavities

moist

simple squamous epithelium on areolar connective tissue

parietal (lines internal body cavities)/visceral (lines internal organs)

integumentary system

skin

sudiferous (sweat) glands

sabaceous (oil) glands

hairs

nails

subcutaneous tissue

epidermis

outermost protective shield of the body

made of epithelial tissue (keratinized stratified squamous epithelium)

avascular

karatinocytes

a cell of the epidermis

produce keratin (protein that allows skin to protect)

major epidermis cells

melanocytes

cells of the epidermis

produce melanin pigment thats packaged into melanosomes (spider shaped cells)

dendritic cells

cells of the epidermis

insert foreign substances and key activators of immune system

dendritic means branching

tactile epithermal cells

cells of the epidermis

sensory receptors for touch

layers of the epidermis

CLGSB

come lets go sun bathe

corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale

thick skin has all 5 layers

thin skin has 4 layers (no lucidum)

stratum corneum

most superficial

¾ of the epidermal

protects, prevents water loss

stratum lucidum

only in thick skin

clear layer (lucid=clear)

stratum granulosum

flat cells

keratinization begins (keratin fibers form)

stratum spinosum

pre-keratin filaments allows them to resist tension

stratum basale

deepest layer

attached to dermis

single layer

where mitosis occurs

the dermis

under epidermis

makes up most of skin

strong, flexible, dense connective tissue

vascular

fibroblasts, macrophages, sometimes mast and white blood cells

has nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, hair follicles, oil glands, sweat glands

2 layers: papillary and reticular

papillary dermis

thin, areolar connective tissue w/ loose collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels

phagocytes (macrophages) patrol

dermal papillae )sends fingerlike projections into epidermis)

fruction ridges: formed by dermal papillae on top of dermal ridges to enhance grippability

reticular dermis

80% of dermal

dense irregular connective tissue

dermal vascular plexus: network of blood vessels between reticular layer and subcutaneous tissue

cleavage (tension) lines: collagen fibers running parallel to skin surface (where surgeons make inscisions)

flexure lines: dermal folds near joints

striae: white scars from extreme straching of skin (stratch marks)

blisters: fluid-filled pockets that separate epidermal and dermal layers from traumas

subcutaneous tissue/hypodermis

covers muscle

mostly adipose tissue w/ areolar connective tissue

what gives skin its color

melanin

carotene

hemoglobin

melanin

only pigment made in skin made from malanocytes

shield DNA from UV sunlight

more sun = more malanin produced

2 forms: reddish yellow to brownish black

cyanosis

blue skin

low oxygen

red/purple/yellow/green marks

bruises from blood leakage from damaged blood vessel

yellowness/jaundice

liver disorder

pallor/blanching

paler skin from emotional stress, low blood pressure, or anemia

redness of skin

embarassment, fever, inflammation, allergy

from hemoglobin

brown/black patches

from melanin

hyperpigmented, thickened skin folds

carotene

think carrot

yellow to orange pigment

in palms and soles

hemoglobin

pinkish hue of fair skin due to decreased melanin levels

hair/pili

flexible strands of dead, keratinized cells produced by hair follicles

hard keratin