Memory: Models, Working Memory, Encoding, Retrieval, and Context

Question-and-answer flashcards covering memory models, working memory, encoding, retrieval, neuroscience, and contextual effects from the lecture notes.

What are the two contrasting memory models discussed in the lecture?

The Multistore Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) and the Levels-of-Processing Model (Craik & Lockhart).

What are the three stores in Atkinson & Shiffrin's Multistore Model?

Sensory Store, Short-Term Store, Long-Term Store.

What is the Sensory Store's function and its primary types?

Entry point for sensory information; has Iconic memory (visual) and Echoic memory (auditory).

What are iconic memory and echoic memory?

Iconic memory is the visual store; echoic memory is the auditory store.

What is the typical duration for iconic versus echoic memory?

Iconic: less than 1 second; Echoic: a few seconds.

According to Sperling's experiments, how many items could be recalled in a full (whole-report) vs cued (partial-report) condition, and what does this imply about iconic memory?

Whole-report recall ~4 items (capacity much larger than kept in full report); iconic memory can hold many items (≈9), with rapid decay; partial-report shows cues retrieve more information from iconic store. Concludes brief, high-capacity visual memory with rapid decay.

What refinement did Averbach & Coriell introduce regarding iconic memory?

Using a marker to cue a single letter reduced output interference; capacity could be as high as about 12 items.

What is the function and typical duration/capacity of Short-Term Store?

Holds information briefly (about 30 seconds without rehearsal); capacity traditionally 7±2 (Miller) but later estimates suggest 3–5; encoding is primarily acoustic; chunking increases capacity; Visual STM holds ~4 objects.

What is chunking and why does it help STM?

Grouping bits into meaningful units increases the amount that can be stored in STM by creating larger units.

What is the Long-Term Store's function and typical capacity?

Holds vast amounts of information for long periods; practically unlimited capacity; examples include names, personal history, general knowledge.

What evidence supports the Long-Term Store's durability and capacity?

Penfield’s brain stimulation triggering memories; Bahrick’s permastore lasting recognition of names/faces; long-term retention like street-name memory for decades.

What is the Levels-of-Processing model's main claim about memory strength?

Memory strength depends on the depth of processing at encoding, not on separate stores.

What are the three levels of processing?

Shallow (physical/visual features), Intermediate (sound-based), Deep (semantic/meaning-based).

What is the Self-Reference Effect?

Memory improves when relating information to yourself; rich, elaborate encoding enhances recall.

What are two criticisms of the Levels-of-Processing model?

Possible circularity (deeper = better recall) and retrieval cues can determine memory strength, challenging the notion that depth alone dictates recall.

What are the two elaboration strategies identified for enhancing encoding?

Within-item elaboration (focus on details of the item) and Between-item elaboration (link item to other memory items).

What is the key contrast between the Multistore Model and the Levels-of-Processing Model?

Multistore emphasizes separate stores and sequential flow; Levels-of-Processing emphasizes depth of encoding and processing quality.

How does the Working Memory (WM) model differ from the traditional three-store view?

WM is a mental workspace where we actively process information; it's a subset of activated long-term memory plus brief STM contents, not just passive storage.

What are the five components of Baddeley's Working Memory Model?

Visuospatial Sketchpad, Phonological Loop, Central Executive, Subsidiary Slave Systems, Episodic Buffer.

What does the Visuospatial Sketchpad do and its subcomponents?

Stores/manipulates visual and spatial information; Visual Cache (shape/color) and Inner Scribe (spatial/movement); information fades without rehearsal.

What is the Phonological Loop and its two parts?

Handles verbal/auditory information; Phonological Store (~2 seconds) and Subvocal Rehearsal; supports silent rehearsal.

What is Articulatory Suppression and the Word Length Effect?

Articulatory suppression blocks rehearsal, reducing memory for verbal info; longer words take longer to rehearse, reducing recall (word length effect).

What is the Central Executive responsible for?

Allocates attention, controls WM resources, manages task-switching, and supports reasoning and comprehension; benefits from bilingualism.

What are the Subsidiary Slave Systems and the Episodic Buffer?

Additional helper systems for specialized tasks; Episodic Buffer integrates information from the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and LTM into a unified episode.

How is WM typically localized in the brain?

WM involves distributed networks across prefrontal cortex, posterior parietal regions, dorsal premotor, occipital, and temporal areas; no single WM center.

What is the approximate capacity of WM in terms of chunks (Cowan, 2005)?

About four chunks in the focus of attention.

Which brain regions are involved in visuospatial WM and face memory?

Visuospatial WM: prefrontal cortex, posterior parietal lobe, dorsal premotor, occipital cortex; Face memory engages the fusiform face area (FFA).

Where is the phonological loop localized in the brain?

Broca's area (BA 44/45), parietal regions (BA 40), and auditory association cortex.

Where is the Central Executive localized in the brain?

Frontal lobes, especially the prefrontal cortex.

What brain regions are associated with the Episodic Buffer?

Bilateral frontal and temporal lobes, including the hippocampus.

What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and its role in memory?

A long-lasting strengthening of synapses from repeated activation; a major biological mechanism for long-term memory storage.

Which neurotransmitters and which disease relate to memory enhancement/deficits?

Serotonin, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine enhance memory; Alzheimer's disease involves low acetylcholine and degeneration in acetylcholine-producing areas.

What is Korsakoff's syndrome and its brain associations?

Alcohol-related memory disorder; associated with diencephalon, frontal, and temporal lobe damage and disrupted memory processes.

What is reconsolidation in memory?

When a memory is recalled, it becomes unstable and can be updated and restabilized, making it susceptible to interference.

What is the hippocampus' role in memory consolidation?

Acts as a rapid learning system; encodes and consolidates new memories and replays them during sleep to support long-term storage.

What happens in the dentate gyrus regarding adult neurogenesis?

Thousands of new neurons are generated daily; learning enhances their survival.

What are flashbulb memories and their reliability?

Vivid, highly confident memories of surprising emotional events; not necessarily more accurate than ordinary memories and can be distorted by rehearsal.

What did Talarico & Rubin (2003) find about flashbulb vs everyday memories?

Both lose detail over time, but people remain more confident about their flashbulb memories despite similar errors.

What are Schacter's Seven Sins of Memory?

Transience, Absent-mindedness, Blocking, Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias, Persistence.

What are common problems with eyewitness testimony?

Misinformation effect, lineup bias, post-identification feedback effect, stress, cross-race effect, repetition; children are particularly vulnerable.

How can false memories form?

Source-monitoring errors and spreading activation can create memories of events that never occurred.

What is the difference between availability and accessibility in memory?

Availability means information is stored; accessibility is the ability to retrieve it; retrieval failures often reflect accessibility issues.

What is encoding specificity and its practical implication?

Recall is better when retrieval cues match encoding cues; language matching can improve recall (Marian & Fausey, 2006).

What is the effect of self-generated cues on memory retrieval?

Self-generated cues are often more effective than cues provided by others; Mantyla showed near-perfect recall with personally created cues.

What are the practical takeaways for studying memory?

Match study conditions to testing conditions; use elaborative rehearsal, mnemonics, spaced practice, and adequate sleep to improve memory.

What did Godden & Baddeley (1975) demonstrate about environmental context?

Recall was better when tested in the same environment as learning (land vs underwater).

What did Rovee-Collier's infant studies show about context in memory?

Infants recall better in the same crib context; multiple contexts help recall when delays are short but memory becomes context-dependent with longer delays.

What is the Bransford & Johnson (1972) finding on context and memory?

Meaningful prior context (e.g., being told passages were about washing clothes) improves encoding and subsequent recall.