Cornell COMM 2760 Flashcards

What type of questions do we (communication scientists) ask?

What type of questions do we (communication scientists) ask?

empirical questions

Constructs, Operationalization, Constraints

Construct: define phenomenon of interest

Operationalization: how to operate the construct

Constraints: what are we limiting this to?

Design: Behavioral observation

only examining behavior, no sorts of interference

Design: surveys

some sort of testing to collect data on participants

Design: experiment

idk its an experiment. important to note that it can be in realistic environments.

Design: Meta-analyses

using multiple studies and methods to find average and range of results. usually higher quality

Mere presence of others sometimes leads to… (two options)

Social facilitation or social inhibition

Social facilitation

the tendency to perform better on a task when in presence of others

Social inhibition

the tendency to perform worse on a task when in presence of others

Generalized Drive Theory (define and draw a graph if you’re that passionate about it)

mere presence creates general arousal (a “drive”) that increases the likelihood of the organism’s dominant response.

dominant response

the organism’s most likely reaction to a given stimulus

Evaluation apprehension

an alternative explanation to mere presence. perhaps the thought that somebody is WATCHING, not just present, affects the behavior.

conformity

adopting the position (real or imagined) of the majority in a given situation

two reasons why we conform

1. For information: Informational social influence, when we believe others are correct in their judgement.

2. For acceptance: Normative Social influence, when we desire to gain acceptance and abide by social norms.

Code-switching

behavior adjustment (speech, appearance, behavior, expression) to optimize comfort of others in exchange for fair treatment, quality service, and employment opportunities.

Ego:

The person we are analyzing

Alter:

people connected to the ego

nodes

people in the network (ego + alter)

ties/edges

connection between nodes, can be one-way or mutual

cluster

a group of nodes

strong ties and weak ties

strong ties are your closest networks, frequent interaction and exposure

weak ties are not your closest networks, however learn/experience new things, and better to discuss important matters

norms

what people think should do; average

normative behavior influenced by three categories:

1. Individual behavior (social referents)

2. Summary information about a group

3. Institutional signals

two types of social norms

(which and what) type of social norm works better in a situation like: organization wants to stop littering, so they have two different signs

1. please do not litter

2. many others haved littered here, making this place ugly af

injunctive norms: what most others approve or disapprove of (subjective)

descriptive norms: what most others actually do (absolute; more powerful; usually don’t know)

in the situatio described, the second sign WILL NOT BE USEFUL, because it insinuates that there is a norm of literring, so people will continue to follow that norm! This is an example of descriptive norms.

focus theory of norms

whichever norms are made accessible (in focus) have most influence.

messages have the most influence when norms (injunctive and descriptive) are aligned

nudge

a subtle way to influence people’s behavior. not an intervention.

Compliance and the 4 parts of it

changes in behavior that are elicited by direct request

1. Reciprocity

2. Commitment

3. Scarcity

4. Authority

Conformity: Reciprocity

we should repay others for what they give us

sense of obligation to reciprocate, or else not part of the societal norms

Door-in-the-face technique

• On reciprocity

• influencer starts with an extreme request that is likely to be rejected, then retreats to a smaller request (the one they wanted all along)

Commitment

Once a person takes a position, they are subsequently inclined to behave in ways that are consistent with that position.

norm to be consistent, plus cognitively easy to be consistent.

Foot-in-the-door technique (FITD)

influencer starts with a small request that is likely to be accepted, then works up to a larger request (the one wanted all along).

Compliance: Scarcity

opportunities seem more valuable to us when they are less available

• common marketing technique

• things become scare, we lose freedom, and most people stongly dislike losing freedom.

loss averse

humans are loss averse: losing something typically feels more bad than gaining something feels good.

Compliance: Authority

we are more likely to comply when the person making the request has power over us.

• socialized early in life to comply with authority figures.

• sometimes negative consequences for not complying with authority figures.

obedience

changes in behavior that are produced by commanded authority.

note: obedience is by command, complicance is by request

Studies have high ___ validity while experiments have high ___ validity

now, define external and internal validity

1. external validity: External validity is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside the context of that study.

2. internal validity: Internal validity is the extent to which a piece of evidence supports a claim about cause and effect, within the context of a particular study.

what is culture?

what does culture do?

LEC: from influence to persuasion

a set of meaning that a group in a time and place come to adopt or develop

it can faciliate smooth social coordinate

clarify group boundaries

Individualistic Culture vs Collectivist Culture

LEC: from influence to persuasion

Individualistic Culture:

• personal-emphasized

• views people as unique

• encourage self-expression and emphasize competitiveness

Collectivist Culture:

• social-emphasized

• views people as part of a group

• discourages self-expression

• emphasizes group harmony

The coordinating function of culture

LEC: from influence to persuasion

to persuade, want the message to align with the culture

How are power relations formed? How does it affect persuasion?

LEC: from influence to persuasion

Social power involves asymmetric control over valued resources in social relations

people with different social positions affects their ability to persuade

What are Latitudes of Acceptance and Latitude of Rejection

LEC: from influence to persuasion

Latitude of Acceptance: the zone where people will listen and change to agree with one

Latitude of Rejection (Determinant of attitude change?) the zone where people will not listen and not agree with one.

What is attitude? What are the components of an attitude?

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

Definition: a construct that represents your evaluation of a person, object, or idea with some amount of favor or disfavor.

Components:

• an effective response (evaluation that something is good or bad)

• an attitude “object” (just the thing being evaluated)

What are the origins of attitudes? (three main things)

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

1. Personal experience

   experiences we have with attitude objects can influence our attitudes about them

2. Social learning

   norms in our society can influence our attitudes about objets

3. Genetics

   attitudes more similar among identical than fraternal twins

what are the origins of attitudes that are underlying processes? (3 things)

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

1. Cognitively based attitudes: based primarily on our thoughts about an attitude object

   • hannah note: this is our evaluation.

2. Affectively based attitudes: based primarily on our feelings about an attitude object

   • hannah note: probably “I” statements

3. Behaviorally based attitudes: based on our behavior/action toward an attitude object. (fondness of something more likelyl to approach the object)

What are the three functions of attitudes? (3)

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

1. Knowledge function: Give us information about objects

   • understand preferences and behavior of individuals

   • provide broader insights about groups and cultures

2. Identity function: help us to express who we are

3. Behavioral function: guide us towards the things we like and away from the things we don’t like.

How do narratives work?

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

They operate through a transportation into a narrative world (texts, movies,etc)

• when the “traveler” leaves their world they return somewhat changed

• this creates implications for the attitudes and behaviors of travelers

• there is little critical processing or counter-argumentation during transportation

Mean-world syndrome

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

The tendency for television viewers to perceive the world as more dangerous place than it actually is, given the medium’s heavy focus on violence-related content.

this is part of cultivation theory

cultivation theory

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

The idea that media “cultivates” or shape users’ perceptions about their social world.

Explicit Measurement (what is it, what material do we usually use, the steps between a question and a response)

LEC: Measuring Attitudes

Collect data, then work towards infer the attitude.

usually using self reports

In general, the participant answers what they think a researcher is asking:

1. Understanding the question

2. Recalling relevant behavior

3. inference and estimation

4. mapping the answer onto the response format

5. “editing” the answer for reasons of social desirability

Pros and cons of open and close ended questions

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

Open: anything (relevant goes). However, the participant could just not answer the question

Closed: limited to options the researcher but excludes potentially relevant options the researcher forgot

Frequency scales and reference periods

(Hannah note: only have my own interpretation)

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

Frequency scale: I think it’s how you scale your answers, so like negative numbers elicits failure, so people are less likely to pick negative numbers on a scale with positive numbers.

Reference periods: how a value is viewed in social norms. So for example, 9 is considered big in context of 1-10, while 300 is considered smaller in the context of 1-1000.

Likert’s method of summated ratings

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

participants are presented with numerous statements related to an attitude object and rate the extent to which they agree with each statement. (1-5: strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree)

attitude is summed score across statements.

Osgood’s technique of semantic differential scales

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

participants are presented with an attitude object along with a series of bipolar adjective scales

asked to indicate how they feel toward the object by marking one of seven categories along each scale

attitude is summed score across items.

Explicit vs implicit attitudes

if we feel positive towards an attitude object, what do we do? negative towards an attitude object, what do we do?

LEC: origins and functions of attitudes

Explicit attitudes:

• evaluations of objects, people, or ideas that we are consciously aware of

• tend to predict controllable behaviors that are low in social desirability concerns

• usually inferred from self-reports

Implicit attitudes:

• evaluations of objects, people, or ideas that we may not be consciously aware of

• tend to predict automatic behaviors that may be beyond conscious awareness

• usually inferred from response times on an associative task

If we truly feel positively towards an attitude object, we should associate it more readily with positive concepts

If we truly feel negatively towards an attitude object, we should associate it more readily with negative concept

What are moderators? What are the moderators of the attitude-behavior link? (4 of them)

LEC: attitude-behavior link

moderator: an external factor that changes the relationships between attitude and behavior.

1. attitude strength (attitude strongly or weakly held by a person): strong attitudes are better predictors than weak attitudes

2. attitude source: first-hand (directly affected the person) attitudes are better predictors than second-hand

3. attitude specificity: specific attitudes are better predictors tan general attitudes (like using birth control vs using birth control pills in next 2 years)

4. situational constraints: attitudes are better predictors of behavior in some situations, and not others (i.e: learning about something bad health-related, but you can’t change it no matter what, so you’d rather not learn about it)

Theory of Reasoned Action

• the key components

• a diagram

• mathematical expression

LEC: attitude-behavior link

key components:

• beliefs about behavioral consequences (B)

• evaluations of behavioral consequences (E)

• beliefs about what others think the actor should do (O) subjective norms

• actors’ motivation to comply with others (M)

O and M are both norms

Math equation:

BI = AB(w1) + SN(w2)

BI = behavioral intention

AB = attitude toward the behavior

SN = social norm

w = weight

The MODE model (automatic vs. controlled processes)

• what type of model is this?

• components of the model

LEC: attitude-behavior link

This is a dual-process model:

we use this to determine under what conditions are the processes spontaneous vs. deliberative

• deliberative processes will occur when there’s motivation and opportunity. Motivation and Opportunity as Determinants)

• otherwise, spontaneous processes will drive behavior.

The role of motivation and opportunity (outcome relevance, value relevance, and opportunity)

LEC: attitude-behavior link

outcome relevance: is the attitude relevant to your goal?

value relevance: is the attitude related to your values?

opportunity: do you have the opportunity to behave in line with your attitude?

attribution theory, what are the two types of plausible causes?

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

attempts to describe how people explain the causes of behavior

we are always trying to explain other’s behaviors

we find factors that plausibly encourage or suppress other’s behavior: the person, and the situation

What is the discounting principle vs the augmentation principle

What does this implicate? (out-of-role vs in role)

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

Discounting principle: we assign less weight to a particular cause if there are other plausible causes

Augmentation principle: we assign more weight to a particular cause if there are other causes that would normally produce the opposite outcome

Implication: out-of-role (expectancy-disconfirming) is more informative than in-role (expectancy-confirming) behavior

What are the factors of attitude change? (5 things)

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

Source, message, recipient, channel, persistence

source:

• credibility, trustworthiness, attractiveness, and similarity.

message:

• personal relevance

• need for cognition

beautiful-is-good stereotype → The Halo Effect

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

• tendency to assume that beautiful people have other positive attributes as well

The Halo Effect: general tendency for initial impressions to predict/correlate with subsequent judgements of an attitude object.

Social Identity theory

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

• part of our self-concept is derived from our group memberships.

• self-esteem is affected by the successes and failures of groups to which we belong

Minimal group paradigm, what usually happens with participants in their groups?

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

an experimental paradigm where researchers arbitrarily assign participants to groups and observe how participants behave towards others as a function of group membership

usually, participants show ingroup favoritism

Basking in reflect glory

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

students led to believe they shared a birthday with other person rated them more favorably

name-letter effect

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

tendency to feel connected with letters that belong to one’s own name

Why is similarity persuasive? (3 reasons)

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

reinforcement: we like it when others share our views

liking: we tend to like that which is similar

ease-of-processing (aka fluency): things that are similar/familiar are easy to think about (need less mental capacity)

need for cognition (NFC)

how does a high nfc and low nfc compare with strong and weak arguments?

LEC: Attitude Change: source, message, and audience characteristics

a measure of the extent to which people enjoy thinking deeply and engaging in cognitively effortful activities

HIGH NFC → better with STRONG arguments than weak arguments

LOW NFC → better with WEAK arguments than strong arguments

from the research paper: a moderate number of interventions is the most effective in promoting multiple behavior domain changes (no matter the motivation level for the participant)

To make predictions about persuasion, we must know three components:

LEC: Persuasive conversations:

source, message, and audience

Talking to strangers benefits

LEC: Persuasive conversations:

• we learn more than expected

• we are happier than expected

• we are interested in deep conversations with strangers than expected

Elaboration-Likelihood Model: assumptions, two routes, and diagram

LEC: Persuasive conversations:

a dual-process model of attitude formation and change

assumption: everylife is too busy to process all information deeply (elaborate), so we save cognitive resources by relying on heuristics (rule-of-thumb)

there are two routes in this model: ELM peripheral route and ELM central route

ELM: Peripheral Route

LEC: Persuasive conversations:

The process by whicih a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues (i.e: fluency, attractiveness, similarity, etc)

• little consideration of argument-relevant information

• influenced by suface/shallow characteristics

• low motivation and cognitive effort

• (me in CS 2800 lectures..)

ELM: Central Route

the process by which a person thinks carefully about communication and is influenced by the strength/merits of its arguments

• careful consideration of argument-relavant information

• high motivation and cognitive effort

• me plating my awesome chicken tikka masala meal at morrison ❤

What is deep canvasing

LEC: Persuasive conversations:

Changing intergroup prejudices

this is really difficult, so the audience must process your message deeply, AND in ways that is personally relevant.

The identifiable victim effect

LEC: Persuasive conversations:

the tendency for people to empathize with and offer greater aid when a specific identifiable person (victim) is suffering, compared to a larger (statistical) group with the same need

Perfect plaintiff (and its pitfall)

LEC: Persuasive groups

A party in a legal action who has suffered a clear injury or harm and whose circumstances are ideal for bringing a case to court. The perfect plaintiff's situation is compelling and helps in establishing a strong legal argument.

It usually appeals to the majority.

Can sometimes separate the minority groups between the perfect plaintiff (the least marginalized group) and the other marginalized parts of the group.

Minority influence works through informative or normative influence?

LEC: Persuasive groups

informative

Social Loafing (what is is, why?, in relation with generalized drive theory and solutions)

LEC: Persuasive groups

a group produced reduction in individual output on tasks for which contributions are pooled

generalized drive theory:

• although groups can arouse people and create social facilitations, if these groups diffuse responsibilities, this will cause social loafing, so normal inhibitions may diminish.

solutions:

• make each person’s effort identifiable

• allow people to evaluate their own contributions

• increase group member’s commitment

Deindividuation

LEC: Persuasive groups

loss of a person’s sense of individuality and loosening of normal constraints against deviant behavior

accompanied by adopting the prevailing social norms

Sacred Values

LEC: Persuasive groups

moral imperative that have their own intrinsic value, and are noncomparable to, and nonfungible with ordinary values

it is taboo to bargain with people over their sacred values (for example, monetary incentives increased hostility)

Intergroup contact theory

LEC: Persuasive groups

groups can get along if

• they have a shared purpose/common goal

• they are in situations where they have to cooperate

• they are on equal footing

• key social referents endorse joint participation

choice architecture

LEC: persuasive institutions

the practice of influencing choice by organizing the context in which people make decisions. note that we never remove any choices.

libertarian paternalism

the philosophy that it is both possible and legitimate for private and public institutions to influence people’s behaviors while also respecting their freedom of choice

channel factors

LEC: persuasive institutions

stimulus or response pathways that sustain behavioral intentions with intensity or stability. They are catalysts of behavior. they guide behaviors towards a choice/outcome.

Power of the default/status quo bias

• Most people choose the default option most of the time

• the default has normative (most people i know do it) and informational (it’s the default for a reason) value

incumbent advantage

LEC: Persuasive groups

in elections, incumbents (previous presidents) enjoy many advantages over challengers

everything the incumbent does well feels like a loss if not re-elected (loss-averse), so losing unique qualities of incumbent “feels bad” more than gaining unique qualities of challenger “feels good”

they have more exposure

primary effects

LEC: Persuasive groups

tendency to endorse options presented first

The normative power of institutions: what is the difference between an institutional signal and an institutional change?

Institutions can change perceptions of norms directly when individuals make a direct inference about norms based on an institutional signal.

institutions can change perceptions of norms indirectly when individuals observe a change in behaviors due to institutional change.