Civics: Unit 1 Test - The Origins of the American Government
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47 Terms
Aristotle
Who: Ancient Greek philosopher scientist, & student of Plato
What: wrote foundational books like Politics & classified different forms of gov.(monarchy, aristocracy, democracy)
Where: Athens & Stagira, Ancient Greece
When: 384-322 BC (Ancient Classical Era)
Why: considered the “Father of Political Science”; argued that the rule of law is superior to the rule of any individual & that a stable society relies on a strong middle class
Thomas Hobbes
Who: English political theorist & Enlightenment philosopher
What: wrote Leviathan (1651), which detailed his dark view of human nature
Where: England
When: 1588-1679 (17th Century)
Why: introduced the early concept of the Social Contract Theory; argued that because humans are naturally selfish, an absolute ruler is required to maintain order
John Locke
Who: an influential English Enlightenment philosopher
What: author of Two Treaties of Gov., which argued for natural rights(life, liberty, & property)
Where: England
When: 1632-1704 (17th-18th Century)
Why: his ideas formed the basis of the Social Contract Theory, influencing Thomas Jefferson when writing the Declaration of Independence
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Who: Swiss-French philosopher & political writer
What: Author of The Social Contract (1762)
Where: Switzerland & France
When: 1712-1778 (18th Century Enlightenment)
Why: argued that gov. must be based on the popular sovereignty & the general will of the people, believed that true freedom comes from citizens participating in creating the laws that govern them
Machiavelli
Who: Italian Renaissance diplomat, politician, & historian
What: wrote the political treatise The Prince (1513)
Where: Florence, Italy
When: 1469-1527 (15th-16th Century)
Why: known as the father of modern political realism: “it is better to be feared than loved” & that “the end justifies the means” to secure political power & stability
Voltaire
Who: French Enlightenment writer, historian, & philosopher
What: producer of thousands of essays, plays, & books criticizing religious prejudice
Where: France
When: 1694-1778 (18th Century)
Why: defender of civil liberties, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, & the separation of church & state
Baron de Montesquieu
Who: French political philosopher & judge
What: wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748)
Where: France
When: 1689-1755 (18th Century)
Why: developed the theory of Separation of Powers & checks & balances, argued that to prevent cruelty, gov. power must be divided into separate executive, legislative, & judicial branches
William Blackstone
Who: Renowned English judge, & legal scholar
What: wrote Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-1769), guide to English common law
Where: Great Britain
When: 1723-1780
Why: his writings became the definitive legal textbook for the American colonists & Founders, shaped the American legal system & popularized the principle that “it is better that 10 guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer”
Winston Churchill
Who: Britain statesman, military officer, & author
What: prime minister of the UK during WW2
Where: Great Britain
When: 1874-1965 (20th Century)
Why: led Britain through its darkest hours against Nazi Germany & is frequently studied in civics for his views on governance, defending democracy w/ his famous quote: “Democracy is the worst form of gov., except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time”
George Washington
Who: Commander of the Continental Army & the 1st President of the U.S.
What: led American forces to victory in the Revolutionary War & presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787
Where: Virginia, U.S.
When: 1732-1799 (18th Century)
Why: known as the ‘Father of His Country,” set foundational examples for the American presidency, including the standard 2-term limit, & demonstrated the civilian control of the military by stepping down from power voluntarily
King John
Who: King of England whose absolute rule irritated a rebellion by his lords
What: forced to sign the Magna Carta (aka Great Charter)
Where: Runnymede, England
When: ruled 1199-1216 (signed Magna Carta in 1215)
Why: established the critical example of limited gov., proving that the monarch was not above the law, introducing early concepts of due process & trial by jury
William & Mary of Orange
Who: joint monarchs of England, Scotland, & Ireland
What: offered the crown by Parliament during the Glorious Revolution on the condition that they accept restrictions on their power
Where: England (coming from the Netherlands)
When: ruled 1689-1702 (The Glorious Revolution occurred in 1688)
Why: established a constitutional monarchy where Parliament held supreme power over the monarch, signed the English Bill of Rights of 1689, which influenced the American Bill of Rights
King George II
Who: British King from the House of Hanover
What: the last British monarch to lead troops into battle, his rule saw major colonial expansions
Where: Great Britain
When: ruled 1727-1760 (18th Century)
Why: granted the royal charter to establish the colony of Georgia (named after him) in 1732, rule oversaw the outbreak of the French & Indian War, setting up the massive debts his successor would try to collect from the American colonies
William Penn
Who: English real estate entrepreneur, philosopher, & Quaker
What: founder of the Province of Pennsylvania
Where: England & Pennsylvania
When: 1644-1718 (17th-18th Century)
Why: early advocate of religious freedom & democracy, designed a system of gov. for Pennsylvania that featured a separation of powers & protected individual liberties, serving as an important blueprint for the American republic
George Calvert (Lord Baltimore)
Who: English politician, colonizer, & 1st Baron Baltimore
What: designed the plan to establish a exclusive colony in North American as a commercial risk & a safe place for persecuted English Catholics
Where: England & Maryland
When: 1580-1632 (17th Century)
Why: initiated the founding of Maryland, although he died before the charter was signed his son Cecil executed the vision, leading to the Maryland Toleration Act of 1649, an early milestone for religious freedom in America
Samuel Adams
Who: American statesman, political philosopher, & Founding Father
What: leader of the Sons of Liberty & organizer of the Boston Tea Party resistance movement
Where: Boston, Massachusetts
When: 1722-1803 (18th Century)
Why: used political propaganda, correspondence committees, & local protests to unite the colonies against British taxation without representation
Roger Sherman
Who: Connecticut statesman, lawyer, & Founding Father
What: only person to sign all 4 major U.S. state papers: the Continental Association, Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, & the Constitution
Where: Connecticut
When: 1721-1793 (18th Century)
Why: proposed the Connecticut Compromise(aka Great Comp.), settled the dispute over legislative representation by creating a double system: a house based on population & a Senate w/ equal votes per state
John Jay
Who: American statesman, diplomat, & Founding Father
What: co-author of the Federalist Papers & the 1st Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court
Where: New York
When: 1745-1829 (18th-19th Century)
Why: secured the ratification of the Constitution by writing essays defending its framework, later he negotiated Jay’s Treaty to prevent war w/ Great Britain & stabilize the early American economy
John Adams
Who: Enlightenment political theorist & the 2nd President of the U.S.
What: served as defense lawyer for British soldiers after the Boston Massacre to uphold the rule of law, & pushed for independence at the Continental Congress
Where: Massachusetts, U.S.
When: 1735-1826 (18th-19th Century)
Why: champion of a “gov. of laws, & not of men,” drafted the Massachusetts Constituion (1780), structured the federal 3 branch system, & advocated for an independent judicial system
Thomas Jefferson
Who: American statesman, diplomat, & 3rd President of the U.S.
What: the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776)
Where: Virginia, U.S.
When: 1743-1826 (18th-19th Century)
Why: expressed the American belief that “all men are created equal” & posses absolute rights to life, liberty, & happiness, formed the justification for separating from Great Britain
John Hancock
Who: Wealthy merchant, statesman, & prominent leader of the colonial resistance
What: president of the 2nd Continental Congress
Where: Boston, Massachusetts
When: 1737-1793 (18th Century)
Why: famous for his large signature on the DOI, which he signed boldly so King George III could read it without his glasses
Patrick Henry
Who: American attorney, planter, politician, & public speaker
What: leading anti-federalist who opposed the ratification of the 1787 Constitution because it lacked protections for individual rights
Where: Virginia
When: 1736-1799 (18th Century)
Why: famous for his fiery 1775 speech declaring, “Give me liberty, or give me death!”, his intense opposition during ratification forced the Federalists to agree to add a Bill of Rights to the Constitution
Thomas Pain
Who: English-born American political activist, philosopher, & author
What: wrote the popular booklet Common Sense (1776)
Where: America (immigrated from England)
When: 1737-1809 (18th Century)
Why: Common Sense explained the arguments for independence in simple, clear language accessible to common citizens, shifted public sentiment away from compromise w/ the King & covered the way for revolution
Daniel Shay
Who: American Revolutionary War captain & veteran
What: leader of Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787), an armed uprising of exhausted farmers fighting foreclosures
Where: Western Massachusetts
When: 1747-1825
Why: his rebellion highlighted the severe military & economic weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, shocking the nation’s leaders & prompting them to call the Constitutional Convention to build a stronger central gov.
Alexander Hamilton
Who: Revolutionary war veteran & the 1st U.S. Secretary of the Treasury
What: chief organizer & lead author of The Federalist Papers, writing 51 of the 85 essays
Where: New York, U.S.
When: 1755-1804 (18th-19th Century)
Why: advocate for a strong federal gov., an industrial economy, & a national bank
James Madison
Who: American statesman & 4th President of the U.S.
What: author of the Virginia Plan, recorder of the Constitutional Convention notes, & drafter of the Bill of Rights
Where: Virginia, U.S.
When: 1751-1836 (18th-19th Century)
Why: admired as the Father of the Constitution, he engineered the complex system of checks & balances, federalism, & bicameralism that forms the structure of the American republic
Benjamin Franklin
Who: American polymath, inventor, scientist, publisher, & diplomat
What: helped draft the DOI, secured the wartime alliance w/ France, & served as the elder statesman at the Constitutional Convention
Where: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
When: 1706-1790 (18th Century)
Why: provided essential diplomacy both internationally & among the state delegates, warned the country upon leaving the convention that they had built
Divine Rights of Kings Theory
Who: promoted by absolute monarchs like King James I of England & King Louis XIV of France
What: a political & religious doctrine declaring that a monarch gains their authority from God, not from the people
Where: Europe, England & France
When: dominant in Europe during the 16th to 18th centuries
Why: used to justify absolute monarchy, claiming that the king can’t be held accountable by any wordly power or parliament
The Social Contract Theory
Who: developed by Enlightenment thinkers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, & Jean-Jacques Rousseau
What: philosophical idea that a gov. is formed through an implied agreement where people surrender some freedom to a ruling power in exchange for protection & order
Where: Europe, Western Political Philosophy
When: 17th & 18th centuries
Why: provided the shift away from the Divine Right of Kings, proving instead that a govs. authority comes from the consent of the governed
Direct / Indirect Democracy
Who: Direct: originated in ancient Athens, Indirect(Representative): modeled by the Roman Republic & adopted by the U.S. founders
What: Direct: citizens vote on laws & policies firsthand, Indirect(Republic): citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf
Where: globally: ancient greece, rome, & modern republics
When: present day
Why: founders rejected direct democracy out of fear of mob rule, choosing instead an indirect representative republic to stabilize lawmaking while protecting civic input
Theocracy
Who: governed by religious officials or a minister ruling class(Vatican City, Iran, Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony)
What: form of gov. in which a God is recognized as the supreme civil ruler, & laws are based from religious doctrine
Where: worldwide
When: throughout human history
Why: blends political power w/ spiritual principles, ensuring total social alignment but often restricting personal, civil, & religious liberties for minorities
Dictatorship
Who: a single leader(autocrat) or a small clique(junta) possessing absolute power
What: form of gov. where power is concentrated in the hands of an unchecked ruler, maintained through military force, & suppression of rights
Where: globally
When: Ancient Rome through modern authoritarian states
Why: prioritizes absolute control & quick decision-making over citizen rights, representation, & the rule of law
Division of Powers
Who: conceived by Baron de Montesquieu & implemented by the U.S. framers
What: the structural distribution of governmental responsibilities across independent branches, Legislative(makes laws), Executive(enforce laws), & Judicial(interpret laws)
Where: U.S.
When: formalized in 1787 within the U.S. Constitution
Why: designed to prevent prejudice concentration of power by forcing each branch to check & balance the others
Feudalism
Who: monarchs, noble lords, vassal knights, & peasant serfs
What: a separated social & political system based on land ownership & firm mutual duties, lords granted land in exchange for military service & labor
Where: Medieval Europe
When: 9th to 15th centuries (the middle ages)
Why: provided basic localized defense & order following the collapse of centralized empires, but locked society into strict, unequal classes
Free Enterprise System
Who: popularized by economist Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations 1776)
What: an economic system(Capitalism) characterized by private ownership of goods, investments determined by private decision, & prices, production, & distribution determined by free market competition
Where: Western Europe & the U.S.
When: 18th century alongside industrialization
Why: aligns w/ civic philosophies of liberty, limiting gov. intervention in private economic life while promoting invention through market impulses
Petition of Rights
Who: enacted by the English Parliament & forced upon King Charles I
What: a landmark English constitutional document setting out specific civil liberties that the King was prohibited from interfering upon
Where: England
When: 1628
Why: claimed that the King could not impose taxes without Parliament’s consent, imprison citizens without cause, quarter troops in private homes, or declare military law in peacetime
English Bill of Rights
Who: drafted by the English Parliament & signed by William & Mary
What: an act of Parliament declaring the basic civil rights & liberties of subjects, while establishing clear limits on the powers of the crown
Where: England
When: 1689
Why: established a constitutional monarchy by guaranteeing freedom of speech in Parliament, free elections, regular parliamentary sessions, & protections against cruel & unusual punishment, served as a template for the U.S. Bill of Rights
The Albany Plan
Who: proposed by Benjamin Franklin
What: unsuccessful proposal to place the British North American colonies under a unified, centralized colonial gov. for defense
Where: Albany, NY
When: 1754, during the French & Indian war
Why: represented the 1st formal attempt to unite the independent colonies under a single council, though rejected by both the colonies & the King, laid the foundation for future unified colonial congresses
The First Continental Congress
Who: 56 delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies (excluding Georgia)
What: a convention of colonial delegates meeting to organize a unified response to the British govs. Intolerable Acts
Where: Carpenters’ Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
When: September-October 1774
Why: marked a major escalation in unity, they drafted a Declaration of Rights, initiated economic boycotts of British goods, & agreed to meet again if relations did not improve
The Second Continental Congress
Who: delegates from all 13 American colonies, including leaders like Washington, Jefferson, & Hancock
What: governing assembly that acted as the de facto national gov. during the Revolutionary War
Where: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
When: 1775-1781
Why: managed the colonial war effort, created the Continental Army, selected George Washington as Commander in Chief, authorized the printing of money, & adopted the DOI
The Declaration of Independence (DOI)
Who: drafted by Thomas Jefferson & signed by 56 delegates of the 2nd Continental Congress
What: formal state document declaring the 13 American colonies free, sovereign, & independent from the Kingdom of Great Britain
Where: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
When: July 4th, 1776
Why: divided ties w/ Britain & laid out the philosophical framework for human liberty, establishing that govs. get legitimacy from the consent of the governed
Articles of Confederation
Who: drafted by the 2nd Continental Congress
What: 1st constitution of the U.S., establishing a weak, distributed league of friendship among the 13 sovereign states
Where: U.S.
When: 1777-1789
Why: created a weak national gov. out of fear of oppression, lacked an executive branch, a federal court system, & the power to collect taxes, which led to economic chaos & its replacement
Shay’s Rebellion
Who: led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays & an army of poor farmers
What: an armed uprising protesting aggressive tax collection, currency shortages, & farm foreclosures
Where: Western Massachusetts
When: 1786-1787
Why: exposed the flaws of the Articles of Confederation, showing that the central gov. was too weak to preserve civil order/maintain an army, forming a new federal constitution
Constitutional Convention
Who: 55 state delegates(framers), governed over by George Washington
What: closed-door convention called to amend the AOC, but resulting instead in the drafting of a new U.S. Constitution
Where: Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
When: May-September 1787
Why: created the modern federal structure of the U.S. gov., balancing state & federal powers through a series of key compromises
The Connecticut Compromise
Who: proposed by delegate Roger Sherman of Connecticut
What: an agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention that settled the representation arguments between large states(Virginia Plan) & small states(NJ Plan)
Where: Constitutional Convention, Philadelphia
When: July 1787
Why: created America’s bicameral legislature: house of representatives based on state population, & a senate offering 2 senators for every state
The Three-Fifths Compromise
Who: agreed upon by Northern & Southern delegates at the convention
What: compromise deciding that 3-5ths of the enslaved population would be counted when determining a state’s total population for taxation & representation in the house
Where: Constitutional Convention, Philadelphia
When: 1787
Why: settled a political argument over southern legislative power, but institutionalized slavery within the constitutional framework of the early republic
Ratification
Who: executed by special state conventions chosen by the citizens of each state
What: formal process of approving & giving legal force to a treaty, contract, or constitutional document
Where: across the 13 states
When: 1787-1788
Why: sparked a national debate between the Federalists & the Anti-Federalists, concluding in the addition of the Bill of Rights to secure final approval