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Roosevelt and “Civilization”
racial and economic basis for using american power around the world
“civilized” (white, anglo-saxon, industrialized) had the right to intervene in affairs of the uncivilized to preserve order
Protecting the “Open Door” in Asia
Roosevelt agreed to mediate Russo-Japanese war in order to prevent either nation from becoming dominant in the area
Japan emerged as predominant power in East Asia
Japan increased naval power
Roosevelt sent “Great White Fleet” to make them recognize the power of the US
Roosevelt Foreign Policy
Roosevelt started a legacy of interventionism in Latin America
“Big Stick Diplomacy”: power of us navy
Roosevelt corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: right to intervene in domestic affairs of neighbors
Construction of the Panama Canal
Reason for canal: Mahan sea power idea
Colombian government refused to give US land to build canal
US supported revolution in Panama that made it an independent country who agreed to the terms the Colombian Senate rejected
Taft and “Dollar Diplomacy”
Taft’s sec of state worked to extend US investments in less developed regions aka “Dollar Diplomacy”
Us sent troops to support insurgents of a revolution in Nicaragua (to protect american financial interest - spurred by American mining company)
stayed there for more than a decade
Wilson and Huerta
“moral diplomacy”
Wilson refused to recognize mexican gov under Victoriano Huerta b/c he murdered the previous president Francisco Madero (who had overthrown previous dictator: Porfirio Diaz)
Huerta, backed by American business, established military dictatorship
sailors from USS dolphin briefly arrested and Mexican ships refused to apologize (21 gun salute)
Wilson seized Mexican port of Veracruz
US action strengthened opposing constitutionalist fation led by Venustiano Carranza who captured Mexico City and forced Huerta to flee
Wilson and Carranza
Carranza refused to accept American guidelines for a new gov: Wilson considered backing another rebel group led by Pancho Villa
Wilson forced to accept Carranza’s gov
Villa retaliated American meddling by marching into New Mexico and killing Americans
Wilson sent general john pershing to go to Mexico in search of Villa, didn’t find him, search called off cus of start of WW1
The Collapse of European Peace
The Triple Entente: Britain, France, and Russia
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy
Anglo-German Rivalry
Assasination of Archduke Franz-Ferdinand by a serbian nationalist
Main Causes: Militarism Alliance Imperialism Nationalism
w/ German support (blank check), Austria-Hungary launched an attack on Serbia, Serbia called in Russia to their defense (secret alliance)
Call for Neutrality
Wilson called for neutrality
“US Exceptionalism”: idea that democratic values mades their country immune from the corruption and chaos
Anti-imperialists leaders wanted to stay out (Henry Ford)
African American leaders saw it as a “white man’s war”
Slowly taking sides
German and Irish immigrant sympathized w Germany
most Americans sides with Britain
American couldn’t trade w/ Germany as much due to British blockade - economic gain pushed them further to British side
war orders from Britain and France caused greatest economic boom in US history
US became arsenal for Allies - New military tech (Machine guns)
German submarine warfare
U-Boats with deisel-electric engine used passive sonar (hydrophone) to locate enemy ships
Sank the Lusitania - a british passenger ship (carrying weapons), killing many americans
Wilson demanded Germany agree to no longer attack passenger ships w/o warning + reaffirm commitment to neutral rights
Germany agreed
Preparing for war (maybe??)
after German hostilities, Wilson endorsed a proposal to allocated $1 billion to increase armed forces - controversial
Wilson’s reelection campaign vs. Republican Charles Evans Hughes revolved around Wilson being the anti-war candidate
won by slim margin due to his support for the bolstering of armed forces
Entering the War
immediate cause of US entrance: unrestricted submarine warfare against Allied (and American) ships
Zimmerman Telegram: germany asked mexico to ally with them in the event of war with the US so that Mexico could reclaim it’s lost territory
Wilson asked for a declaration of war
now used US exceptionalism to support the other side: US intervention as means to spread progressive ideas
self-determination
US comes to saves the day!
US troops crossed atlantic, used convoy system to avoid german submarines: sent multiple ships at the same time at the same speed and changed course a lot
US destroyers aided in assault on subs
after bolshevik rev lenin neogtiated Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Russia left the conflict
Raising Forces
national draft: selective service act
command from Washington carried out by local administration, preserved local autonomy
American Expeditionary Forces
Diverse Troops
women allowed to enlist: served in hospitals and offices
African Americans also enlisted: preformed menial tasks and served in segregated units
Many wanted recent immigrants to join military to become true americans
American Legion
former AEF soldiers form American Legion to help soldiers cope with experience of war
PTSD and after effects of war very rampant in soldiers coming back from abroad
American Expeditionary Force
joined allies under General John J. Pershing
Europe had been embroiled in trench warfare for years at that point
European leaders didn’t trust US forces but Pershing wouldn’t allow foreign officers to command Americans
European leaders caved when German advanced basically to Paris
Marines = devil dogs
The Battles
Americans assisted French at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood (Meuse-Argonne Campaign) in repelling German forces that were nearing Paris
Pushed German back at St. Mihiel
German leaders began to seek an armistice
End of War
after pushing Germans basically back to their borders Central Power leaders sought an armistice
Nov 11, 1918: WW1 ended
America emerged as a world leader, European dominance declined
New Technology of Warfare
high casualty rate as a result of highly destructive weapons
had to break stalemate by overcoming trenches: tanks, dreadnoughts, airplanes
american diesel submarines
disease = huge killer
Organizing the economy for war
US spent $32 billion
used federal serve system to expand money supply
War Revenue Bills: levies on “excess profits” of corps and graduated income and inheritance tax
Wilson established a Council of National Defense to mobilize at a local level
The War Boards
oversaw railroads, fuel supplies, food, etc.
food administration: under Herbert Hoover
farms at home; didn’t actually need to ration food
War Industries Board: coordinated gov purchases of war supplies
under Bernard Baruch
wielded great federal power
gov planning disbanded after war but emerged with positive view on the cooperation of the public and private sector: modern bureaucratic state (big government)
Ludlow Massacre
striking miners in Rockefeller mine
killed
National War Labor Board
improved labor position to avoid strikes
8-hour workday, overtime, and women = pay
Economic and Social results of the war
increased employment
white men @ war so new opportunities for women, African American, Mexican, and Asian workers
The Great Migration: migration of a lot of A.A from rural south into industrial north
Mexican Americans left farm labor for industrial jobs in western cities
Many Mexican immigrants - settled in segregated neighborhoods: barrios
women started working industrial jobs
The Peace Movement
Carrie Chapmen Catt created the Women’s Peace Party: wanted to stay out of war
Once war started many women saw war as a means for women’s suffrage and as a female labor opportunity
Propaganda and Silencing of Dissent
Committee on Public Information (CPI): distributed pro-war propaganda
propaganda became aggressively anti-german
Espionage Act: stiff penalties for spies and obstruction of war
Sedition Act: made it illegal to express any opposition to war
Schenck v. United States: supreme court upheld limits on freedom of speech that would not have been acceptable in peacetime (clear and present danger)
“American Protective League”: ppl would spy on neighbors to “impose unity”
violence and prejudice against immigrants (esp german)
100% americanism: conformity + support for war
Wilson’s 14 points
Plan for the peace negotiations
open diplomacy (no secret alliances)
freedom of navigation
arms reduction
removal of trade barriers
self-determination
multinational organization: The League of Nations w/ internatonal peackeeping force (Article X)
The Peace Conference
German and russian reps excluded - west fear of bolsheviks
Wilson had partial success in scaling back French and British demands for reparations from Germany meant to keep Germany weak
Wilson got a commitment to the League of Nation
allies signed the Treaty of Versaille
Issue of Ratification
Wilson could not get 2/3 vote of senate for ratification of the Treaty of Versailles
congress didn’t like how it stripped their power to declare war + their loss of unilateral power
people against ratification: irreconcilable (mostly western isolationists or republicans)
wilson went on a speaking tour to defend the treaty, he had a stroke, the US never ratified the treaty or joined the league of nations
1920s economy
increased manufacturing output and income
roaring 20s
causes of boom: European destabilization left big markets for the US, technology and industrial expansion
Expansion of linked industry
automobile industry good example:
stimulated growth in other industries
auto manufacturers also purchase steel, rubber, glass, and tools, auto owners buy gas from oil corps, road construction, increased demand for suburban housing
rise of radio
radio: theory of modulation discovered by Reginald Fessenden
led to commercial broadcasting: advertising and entertainment
early computers
Vannevar Bush: first analog computer
Howard Aiken: even more complex computer with memory and advanced math skills: financial assistance from Harvard and MIT
New Economic Organization
oligopolies
CEO’s replaced individual/family-owned enterprises as major form of business org
General Moters: Alfred P. Sloan: implemented efficient divisional organization
Trade Associations: members of an industry coordinate in production and marketing techniques
fear of overproduction
Labor in the New Era
increased wealth gap
increased living standards and working conditions for some workers - employers tried to avoid labor unrest (Welfare Capitalism)
wage increases were nowhere near the rate of production and profit increase
welfare capitalism undercut labor unions: ppl also wanted to avoid being labeled socialist
Women in the workforce
women mostly worked “pink collar jobs”: lower-paying service jobs
largely left out of labor orgs
Minorities in the workforce
A.A who had migrated to industrial cities were often unrepresented by labor unions - creation of The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters: A. Philip Randolph: union led by A.A and represented virtually all black workforce
in west: asian and hispanic workers were also scarceley organized
Japanese immigrants found success in truck farming
CA passed laws to make it more difficult for Japanese ppl to buy land
Filipino workers also made up a considerable part of the unskilled
Anti-Filipino Riots in CA led to legislation virtually eliminating immigration from the Phillipines
The “American Plan”
open shop crusade: democratic capitalism relied on workers not being required to join a union
incorporated welfare capitalism
some corps would ban unions (by negotiating with union leaders and using welfare capitalism)
Agricultural Technology and the Plight of the farmer
mechanized farming
increased crop yield w/ fewer workers
Hybrid corn (genetic research)/chemical fertilizers/pesticides
overproduction of agriculture caused dramatic price fall/drop in farmers income
farmers accounted for 25% of pop so this spelled big problems for the American economy
increase in tenancy
Parity
government price support ensuring farmers would earn back at least their produ tion costs
promoted tariffs and gov sells of surplus crops abroad
McNary-Haugen Bill: parity act: vetoed by Pres Calvin Coolidge as a “special interest” bill
Consumerism
mass consumer culture
installment plan: let people buy good they couldn’t afford
increased purchasing of automobiles
rise of suburbs
travel for pleasure possible for working/middle class families - vacation industry
rise of independent youth culture
real estate speculation
rise of advertising industry
The Man Nobody Knows
controversial book by Bruce Barton
portrayed jesus as the ultimate salesman
Newspapers
national medium
mass-circulation magazines
condensed stories, books, and news in a more accessible format
Americana style of art: nostalgic american themes: Norman Rockwell (covers of Saturday evening post)
Movies
important for mass communication and spreading common values and attitudes image-wise
industry centered in socal - LA has reputation as being anti-union
US produces 90% of world’s films
most famous female actress: Clara Bow: created flapper image
first feature-length film with sound: “The Jazz Singer” w/ Al Jolson
Commercial Radios
first commercial radio station: KDKA
revenue from advertisement
live broadcast of sports
baseball: Babe Ruth
Charles Lindbergh
most popular american
flew on the first succesful nonstop flight from NY to Paris on “The Spirit of St. Louis”: time’s first “man of the year”
Women’s role in the family
“companionate marriage”
serial monogamy
birth control
Flapper
Flappers: modern women living liberated lifestyle
mostly lower-middle class and working class women
most women however were still largely reliant on men
Modernist Religion
more in favor of personal fulfillment in the present world
liberal protestantism: Harry Emerson Fosdick
religion lost value in the life of some middle-class people
Pressing for Women’s Rights
Alice Paul’s National Woman’s Party continued to campaign for the Equal Rights Amendment
Sheppard-Towner Act: allocated funds for prenatal and child healthcare programs
opposed by some feminists cus it classified all women as mothers
“protective” legislation
healthcare professionals feared untrained healthcare workers
Education and Youth
highest rate of school attendance
schools offered traditional/classical education and vocational/technical skills
athletics, clubs offered
A Lost Generation
Gertrude Stein: coined the term
Ernest Hemingway: “A Farewell to Arms” - contempt for war
H.L. Mencken (Debunker): journalist who ridiculed religion, politics, art, and democracy
F. Scott Fitzgerald: “The Great Gatsby” ridiculed American obsession with material wealth
Jazz
Duke Ellington, Jelly Roll Morton, Louis Armstrong, Cab Calloway, Bessie Smith
born in New Orleans
had a white audience
The Harlem Renaissance
flourishing african american culture centered in Harlem NY
drew from american and african roots: celebrate the richness of their heritage: black pride
Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston
Major Leader: Alain Locke
Prohibition
18th amendment: prohibition of sale and manufacturing of alcohol
not enforced: easy to produce, not enough enforcement agents
black market: industry for organized crime (Al Capone)
Nativism post war
Emergency Immigration Act: Annual immigration from any country could not exceed 3% of people of that nationality in 1910
The National Origins Act of 1924: banned immigration from East Asia and reduced quote from Europe to 2% based on 1890 census
1927: cap of 150000 immigrants per year
loopholes in immigration laws from Mexico and Central/South America
Rebirth of the Klan
D.W. Griffith’s “Birth of a Nation”: glorified early klan - inspired rebirth
still focused on intimidation of A.A.: expanded to concern over Catholics, Jews, and immigrants
fear of threat to “traditional values”
gained public office and control of state legislatures
Decline: scandal and corruption: David Stephenson: raping and kidnapping of secretary, led to her suicide
Scopes Trial
Tennessee made teaching evolution illegal (evangelical fundamentalist influence)
John T. Scopes (bio teacher) was arrested for doing so and was represented by the ACLU in the trial
William Jennings Bryan was the main figure of the prosecution
known as the “Monkey Trial” for it’s popularity
Modernist v. Fundementalist
Split of the Democratic Party
1920: Harding/Coolidge ticket won against James Cox/Frankling Roosevelt
tension within the party due to diverse interest groups: split over prohibition, immigration restriction, and kkk
1924: nominated John W. Davis - defeated by Coolidge
1928: nominated Alfred E. Smith (Irish Catholic, represented the Urban Working Class) - lost to Herbert Hoover
Harding
passive president
incompetent
Teapot Dome Scandal: Sec of Interior Albert B. Full secretely leased naval oil reserves to wealthy business men
Died of a heart attack
Coolidge
passive president: believed in deregulation of business
more honest
Government and Business
relationship between private sector and federal gov
Sec of Treasury Andrew Mellon: reduced taxes on corporate profits, personal incomes and inheritances + decreased federal budhet: cut WW1 payment in half
Herbert Hoover (Sec of Commerce): associationalism: creation of national org of businessmen in particular industries (trade associations)
Election of 1928
Hoover seen as progressive candidate
easily won against Smith
broke “solid south” by carrying some southern states
Marcus Gravey
black nationalism
reject assimilationism
“negro improvement association”
return to africa movement
Chicago Race Riots
in response to black voters deciding elections and competing with white for jobs and housing
part of the red summer of 1919
The Red Scare
russian rev presented threat of communism
radicals supposedly to blame for a series of bombings
undermined power of labor unions seen as radicals
deportation of immigrants w/ suspected anarchist or revolutionary leanings
Sacco and Vanzetti Trial: italian immigrants charged w/ murder one questionable evidence just cause they were anarchists - denied a retrial when someone literally confessed to the crime
Backlash to gov’s infringement of civil liberties
American Civil Liberties Union created
supreme court justices Oliver Wendell Holmes and Louis Brandeis defended unpopular speech
The Palmer Raids
Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer orchestrated raids on “radical centers” and arrested more than 6000 ppl