BSCI 170 Midterm 1

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227 Terms

1
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What are the five rules to simplify biology?

  • Evolution is the key to understand everything in biology

  • New properties emerge at successive levels of biological organization

  • Structure and function are intimately related

  • Biology is chemistry and physics in action

  • Energy controls everything in biology

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What is the criteria common to all living organisms?

  • The cell is the fundamental structural unit

  • Cells are complex and highly organized

  • Cells have a genetic program to support and direct faithful reproduction

  • Cells acquire and use energy

  • Cells respond to their environment

  • Cells self-regulate (homeostasis)

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What are prokaryotes?

  • Mostly unicellular forms that lack a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

  • Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea, which are characterized by their simple cell structure.

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What are eukaryotes?

Mostly multicellular forms of cells that have a defined nucleus and organelles, which allow for complex cellular processes and specialized functions.

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How are prokaryotes different than eukaryotes?

  • Prokaryotes vastly outnumber eukaryotes.

  • Prokaryotes live in every conceivable environment or ecological niche.

  • Prokaryotes have limited morphologies but more diverse metabolisms (the way they get energy)

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How are eukaryotes different than prokaryotes?

  • Eukaryotes are much more morphologically diverse than prokaryotes (but less metabolically diverse)

  • Eukaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus that stores and protects genetic material

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  • What is the plasma membrane?

  • A cell membrane —> separates cell from outside environment

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  • What makes up the endomembrane system?

  • Nuclear envelope (double membrane that surrounds nucleus of cell), endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and endosomes

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  • What is the cytoplasm?

  • Everything between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope

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  • What is cytosol?

  • Gel-like substance excluding the membrane-bound organelles

  • Includes the cytoskeleton and non-membrane bound inclusions

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  • What are organelles?

  • Discrete membrane-bound subcellular compartments specialized to carry out specific cellular functions

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  • What’s inside the nucleus?

  • DNA

  • Nucleolus - tightly packed RNA

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  • What’s the nucleus’s function?

  • Separates/protects DNA from the rest of the cell

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  • What’s the nuclear envelope function?

  • Helps regulate which molecules enter/exit the nucleus and interact with DNA

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  • What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulums?

  • Rough ER and Smooth ER

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  • What does the Rough ER consist of?

  • Layers of flattened membrane.

  • Membrane surface studded with ribosomes for synthesis of protein for secretion. Rough ER is basically the place where proteins are made!

17
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  • What is in the lumen (tube) of the rough ER?

  • Enzymes for adding sugars to proteins

18
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  • What are the functions of the smooth ER?

  • Calcium Ions (Ca 2+) storage

  • Cholesterol Synthesis

  • Making of membrane

  • Detoxification (breaking down of harmful chemicals)

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  • What does the Golgi Apparatus do?

  • Processes and packages material for secretion either out of cell or to a different part of the cell

  • Can modify proteins before sending them out

  • Different regions contain distinct enzymes to modify it

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  • What are lysosomes?

  • Uses enzymes to digest/break down large materials such as fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.

21
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  • What are vacuoles in animal cells?

  • Membrane bound sacs. Help transport waste to lysosome to get broken down.

22
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  • What is the central vacuole in animal cells?

  • Stores water mostly (also some ions, organic molecules, etc)

23
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  • What does the mitochondria do?

  • In eukaryotic cells

  • Oxidizes carbohydrates and fatty acids.

  • Mostly, produces ATP

24
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  • What do chloroplasts do?

  • Photosynthesis + starch production

  • In plant cells only

  • Reflects green light

25
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  • What is the cytoskeleton?

  • Series of proteinaceous filaments and tubulus

  • Helps keep cell structure, shape, and movement

26
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  • What makes each cell unique?

  • The organization and composition of different cellular structures

    • REMEMBER: structure = function

27
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  • What does image resolution mean?

  • Refers to how much detail can be gotten from an image (higher resolution = more detail)

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29
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  • What is matter?

  • Anything that takes up space and has mass

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  • What is matter composed of?

  • Elements

31
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  • What is a compound?

  • Contains 2 or more different elements in a defined ration

    • NaCl is a compound, but O2 isnt

32
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  • What are the main elements in the human body?

    • Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

      • Other elements in the body are called trace elements

33
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  • What is one example of the importance of trace elements?

  • Iron (trace element) located in our hemoglobin.

    • If we didn’t have enough, lots of health issues could occur

34
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  • What are atoms?

  • smallest unit of structure, containing all of the chemical and physical properties of an element

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  • What happens when atoms interact?

  • Only electrons interact, nuclei never interact

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  • Are all electrons the same?

  • Electrons differ in energy levels, but all protons are the same

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  • What is energy?

  • The capacity to do work (move something against an opposing force)

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  • What is potential energy?

  • energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure

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  • What is kinetic energy?

  • energy associated with the relative motion of objects

40
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  • What type of energy do electrons have?

  • potential energy

  • amount of potential energy they have is correlated with its distance from the nucleus

  • the closer the electrons are to the nucleus, the lower their energy

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  • Where are electrons found?

  • Orbitals (two electrons per orbital)

42
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  • What are shells?

  • Where all electrons with approximately the same amount of energy are found

  • Shells contain several orbitals and several electron pairs

43
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  • What is the chemical behavior of an atom determined by?

  • The distribution of electrons in the shells

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  • What does shell 1 have room for?

  • 2 electrons

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  • What does shell 2 + 3 have room for?

8 electrons

46
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  • When are most atoms stable?

  • When their outer shells are full

47
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  • What are chemical bonds?

  • Attractions that hold atoms together

  • Strong/weak bonds

48
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  • What are covalent bonds?

  • Extremely strong and stable

  • Atoms sharing valence electrons

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  • What is a single covalent bond?

  • 2 elements shared between two atoms equals a single covalent bond

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  • What is a molecule?

  • 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds

51
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  • What is a compound?

  • requires two or more different elements in a defined ratio

52
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  • What is electronegativity?

  • a measure of how strongly an atomic nucleus attracts and holds onto electrons

  • more electronegativity = more pull towards nucleus

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  • How much electronegativity defines a covalent bond?

  • Less than 1.7 (difference between two atoms)

54
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  • What are nonpolar covalent bonds?

  • 2 atoms share electrons equally, no significant difference in electronegativity

55
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  • What are the two most electronegative atoms of biological importance?

  • Oxygen and nitrogen

56
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  • What are polar covalent bonds?

  • Electrons are shared unequally between two atoms (one has stronger pull)

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  • What are weak bonds?

  • result from electrostatic attractions between two atoms

  • hydrogen bonds, van der waals interactions

58
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  • What are hydrogen bonds?

  • form when a H covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is attracted to another nearby electronegative atom

  • each individual H bond is weak, but is collectively strong

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  • What are ionic bonds?

  • electronegative difference may be so large as to literally pull electrons from the outer shell

  • NaCl

60
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  • Is NaCl a compound or a molecule?

  • compound (two different elements in a defined ratio)

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62
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  • What are van der Waals interactions?

temporary fluctuations in electron distributions, leading to weak and transient bonds in nonpolar and polar molecules

63
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  • What are van der Waals interactions critical for determining?

  • the 3D shapes of proteins

  • the specific interactions between an enzyme and its substrate

64
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  • Why is water essential for life?

  • Life began and evolved in water

  • Our chemistry is an aqueous chemistry

  • Living organisms are mostly composed of water

65
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  • Why is H20 so special?

  • polar covalent bond

  • simple structure

  • partial + (near hydrogen) and - charge (near oxygen)

  • each molecule can form hydrogen bonds with up to four water molecules (forms weak hydrogen bonds with other water molecules)

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  • What creates the four properties of water?

  • polarity and hydrogen bonding

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  • What is the first property of water?

  • sticky to other molecules because of hydrogen bonding

    • adhesion to other molecules

    • cohesion to other H2O

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  • What is the second property of water?

  • moderation of temperature (due to hydrogen bonding)

    • high specific heat: the amount of energy required to raise the temp of water

    • heat of vaporization: the amount of energy needed to convert water from a liquid to a gas

69
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  • What is an example of water’s moderation of temp. property?

  • when sweat evaporates from the skin, it absorbs a large amount of heat energy, thereby cooling the body down through a process called evaporative cooling

70
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  • What is the third property of water?

  • solid H2O is less dense than liquid H2O (ice in water floats)

    • ice: hydrogen bonds are stable

    • liquid: hydrogen bonds constantly break and reform

71
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  • What is the fourth property of water?

  • excellent solvent for polar and charged molecules and compounds

72
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  • What are hydrophilic molecules?

  • molecules that break down and interact with the charges in water

73
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  • What does the pH scale range from?

  • 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic)

74
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  • What does water being able to dissociate mean?

  • It means that water can break apart into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-), which is crucial for various biochemical reactions.

75
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  • What is an acid?

  • increases the relative concentration of H+ in a solution (and decreases the relative concentration of OH-)

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  • What is a base?

  • decreases the relative concentration of H+ in a solution (and increases the relative concentration of OH-)

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  • What does it mean by more acidic?

  • More H+ ions

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  • What does it mean by more alkalinity?

  • More basic/more OH-

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  • What is a neutral solution?

  • roughly equal amounts of OH- and H+ ions (pH=7)

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  • What is an acidic solution?

  • pH < 7.0 (more H+)

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  • What is a basic solution?

  • pH > 7.0 (more OH-)

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  • Why are cells so sensitive to changes in pH?

  • changes in H+ can change the ionization state of macromolecules

    • can change charge which can change structure which can change function!

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  • What is the backbone of every molecule, which makes up life?

  • Carbon: able to form large, diverse, and complex molecules

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  • What type of bonds can carbon form?

  • covalent bonds (single double and triple)

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  • What are hydrocarbons?

  • molecules consisting of only hydrogens and carbons

  • structurally diverse, may be complex

  • nonpolar (equally share electrons)

  • hydrophobic so not very useful

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  • What are isomers?

  • molecules with the same molecular formula but with distinct arrangements of the atoms

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  • What are geometric isomers?

  • differ in the spatial arrangement of their atoms, particularly around double bonds.

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  • What do functional groups do to hydrocarbons?

  • make hydrocarbons more polar and soluble and reactive

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  • What are the four different types of molecules?

  • carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins

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  • What are macromolecules?

  • built from successive addition of smaller subunits called monomers

  • formed from carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids

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  • What are polymers?

  • covalently attached monomers forms a polymer

  • subunits are either identical or very similar

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  • How do you add a monomer to a short polymer?

  • dehydration synthesis: we lose an H2O.

    • one molecule of H2O is released for every monomer added to the polymer

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  • How do we disassemble (take a monomer off a polymer)?

  • hydrolysis: break up water into its component parts

    • one molecule of H2O is added for every monomer added to the polymer

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  • What is macromolecular diversity dependent on?

  • the arrangement of monomers

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  • What are carbohydrates important for?

  • energy storage, protection, recognition, and structural integrity of cells

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  • What makes up carbohydrates?

  • simple sugars + polymers of sugars

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  • What is a monosaccharide?

  • one sugar molecule (simple sugar)

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  • What is a disaccharide?

  • two monosaccharides covalently bonded together